The Constitution of India (issues) - Revision history

Jyoti: /* November 26, 1949: the Constituent Assembly adopts the Constitution */

2026-02-26T20:47:44Z

‎November 26, 1949: the Constituent Assembly adopts the Constitution

Jyoti: /* Its resilience */

2025-12-03T11:46:14Z

‎Its resilience

Jyoti: /* Art */

2025-03-25T20:05:43Z

‎Art

Jyoti: /* Illustrations in the 1st print edition */

2025-03-03T04:35:42Z

‎Illustrations in the 1st print edition

Pdewan: /* India’s deceptive Constitution */

2024-11-26T08:28:05Z

‎India’s deceptive Constitution

Jyoti: /* The spirit */

2024-03-16T22:14:37Z

‎The spirit

Pdewan: /* See also */

2023-05-20T19:19:34Z

‎See also

Pdewan at 20:21, 21 February 2023

2023-02-21T20:21:08Z

Pdewan at 20:14, 21 February 2023

2023-02-21T20:14:46Z

Jyoti: /* The basic structure doctrine */

2023-02-06T04:24:57Z

‎The basic structure doctrine

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:47, 26 February 2026
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	“The other regret is that we have not been able to draw up our first Constitution of a free Bharat in an Indian language. The difficulties in both cases were practical and proved insurmountable. But that does not make the regret any the less poignant.”		“The other regret is that we have not been able to draw up our first Constitution of a free Bharat in an Indian language. The difficulties in both cases were practical and proved insurmountable. But that does not make the regret any the less poignant.”
		+
		+	==Dr Rajendra Prasad On the making of the constitution==
		+	[https://epaper.indiatimes.com/article-share?article=26_01_2026_018_002_cap_TOI January 26, 2026: ''The Times of India'']
		+
		+	[[File: The Constitution of India, details.jpg\|The Constitution of India, details <br/> From: [https://epaper.indiatimes.com/article-share?article=26_01_2026_018_002_cap_TOI January 26, 2026: ''The Times of India'']\|frame\|500px]]
		+
		+	On March 15, 1946, Mr. Attlee, the British Prime Minister, made an announcement that a Cabinet Mission consisting of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. Alexander, would be “going to India with the intention of using their utmost endeavours to help her to attain her freedom as speedily and fully as possible. What form of Government is to replace the present regime, is for India to decide.
		+
		+	The Cabinet Mission arrived in India shortly afterwards and together with the Viceroy, Lord Wavell, carried on discussions and negotiations with leaders of political parties in India among whom the chief were the Indian National Congress and the AllIndia Muslim League. They also interviewed representatives of the Princes of India. Finding that no agreed solution was possible, they issued a statement on May 16, 1946, wherein after referring to certain proposals which they considered impracticable, they made their suggestions which they thought represented the maximum agreement that was possible.
		+
		+	''' STATES '''
		+
		+	With regard to States, they said: “It is quite clear that with the attainment of Independence by British India… the relationship which has hitherto existed between the Rulers of the States and the British Crown will no longer be possible…”. They felt assured, however, that the States were ready and willing to co-operate in the new development of India. The precise form which this co-operation would take was to be a matter for negotiations. They suggested that a constitution making machinery should be brought into being forthwith to enable a new constitution to be worked out.  The Constituent Assembly met for the first time on the 9th of December 1946, but without those Muslim representatives who had been elected on the ticket ot the All-India Muslim League. It proceeded to carry on negotiations with the Princes…. The States gradually sent their representatives and by the time the Constituent Assembly finished its labours, all the States within the geographical limits of India with the exception of Hyderabad were represented by their own representatives on the Constituent Assembly.
		+
		+	After formulating its own rules of procedure, the Constituent Assembly settled its own terms of reference in the shape of an objectives resolution which declared its intention to constitute India into a sovereign republic and to draw up a constitution which would constitute what were then the British Provinces and the Indian states as well as other territories willing to join India into a Union, would guarantee, justice, social, economic and political, equality of status, of opportunity and before the law, freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship, and would provide adequate safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas, depressed and other backward classes.
		+
		+	By the time the transfer of power took place on August 15, 1947, all the Indian States in geographical contiguity with India except Kashmir and Hyderabad had acceded to India on three subjects, namely Foreign Affairs, Defence and Communications.
		+
		+	While the Constitution was in the process of being drafted, a movement for the integration of the States started. In the first place the smaller States chose to become integrated with the Province of the Indian Provinces contiguous to them and otherwise having affinity with them.
		+
		+	''' COMPLEX ISSUES '''
		+
		+	The Constituent Assembly has taken nearly three years to complete this work. It has had eleven sessions and sat in all for 165 days and the cost incurred on its account up to November 22, 1949, comes to Rs. 63,96,729. Considering the complexity of problems and the development of events that have taken place during this period, the time taken has not been too great. The Constitution comprises some 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. The bulk is undoubtedly great, but not too great when we consider the variety of subjects with which it has had to deal.
		+
		+	(Read the full version of this article on timesofindia.com)

	[[Category:India\|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)		[[Category:India\|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)

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 [https://epaper.timesgroup.com/article-share?article=26_01_2022_020_018_cap_TOI  D Shyam Babu, January 26, 2022: ''The Times of India'']
-Highlighting how resilient the Constitution of India had been during the first half-century of its existence, eminent jurist Fali Nariman narrated in 2002 how Sir IvorJennings – that ‘prolific author of Westminster-type constitutions’ – was dismissive of our law of the land. Invited by theUniversity of Madras to lecture on the Constitution when the document was barely a year old, he said it was “too long, too detailed, too rigid”. Indeed!The same Sir Ivor had helped draft constitutions for SriLanka (then Ceylon)and Nepal but neither outlived its infancy. Such is the fate of most constitutions in the developing world. It mattered not whether a constitution was homegrown or borrowed, too long or two short, it proved to be toofrail to live longer. But the IndianConstitution stands as a beacon of stability and longevity. However, one can readily concede to its shortcomings: it’s too long, too alien, etc. And one can as wellthrow in yet another charge:it’s too elitist. What then explains the success of a document that is plagued by somany infirmities?An often neglected factorfor the Constitution’s successis its popularity, the realisation among an overwhelming majority of Indians that itreflects and guarantees theirbasic human rights. Aboveall, the document symbolisesthe nation-inmaking. It is nomere past perfect,but a charter ofpresent continuous. For the downtrodden – lowercastes, especiallyDalits and tribals,and women – itsymbolises notonly a break from
+Highlighting how resilient the Constitution of India had been during the first half-century of its existence, eminent jurist Fali Nariman narrated in 2002 how Sir IvorJennings – that ‘prolific author of Westminster-type constitutions’ – was dismissive of our law of the land. Invited by theUniversity of Madras to lecture on the Constitution when the document was barely a year old, he said it was “too long, too detailed, too rigid”. Indeed!The same Sir Ivor had helped draft constitutions for SriLanka (then Ceylon)and Nepal but neither outlived its infancy. Such is the fate of most constitutions in the developing world. It mattered not whether a constitution was homegrown or borrowed, too long or two short, it proved to be toofrail to live longer. But the IndianConstitution stands as a beacon of stability and longevity. However, one can readily concede to its shortcomings: it’s too long, too alien, etc. And one can as wellthrow in yet another charge:it’s too elitist. What then explains the success of a document that is plagued by somany infirmities?An often neglected factorfor the Constitution’s successis its popularity, the realisation among an overwhelming majority of Indians that itreflects and guarantees theirbasic human rights. Aboveall, the document symbolisesthe nation-inmaking. It is nomere past perfect,but a charter ofpresent continuous. For the downtrodden – lowercastes, especiallyDalits and tribals,and women – itsymbolises notonly a break from centuries of oppression andsubordination but the hopefor a bright future. A case in point is the adnauseam debate on the everexpanding ambit of quotas. While one may be right in finding fault with the logic of quotas, one must recognise thatany debate thereon is invariably anchored to constitutional guarantees. The legitimacyand longevity of any constitution depend on the peoples’faith that it has direct andpositive bearing on their lives. What gives the documentits heft is its structure in thatit is comparable to most constitutions in the developedworld, as well as its pedigree,above all epitomised by itschief architect, Dr Ambedkar. However, its depth comes fromthe 299-member Constituent Assembly which was broadlyrepresentative of the country. Each of the 15 women members in the Assembly, for example, was there in her own right. Some of them, such as Durgabai Deshmukhand RajkumariAmrit Kaur, wenton to make enduring contributionsto the nation. Twoother members,Hansa Jivraj Mehta and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, madetheir mark at theglobal level. the Assembly rendered gender justice a fait accompli, no matConstitution was adopted, her Declaration of Human Rights be absolute and unambiguous.
 centuries of oppression andsubordination but the hopefor a bright future. A case in point is the adnauseam debate on the everexpanding ambit of quotas. While one may be right in finding fault with the logic of quotas, one must recognise thatany debate thereon is invariably anchored to constitutional guarantees. The legitimacyand longevity of any constitution depend on the peoples’faith that it has direct andpositive bearing on their lives. What gives the documentits heft is its structure in thatit is comparable to most constitutions in the developedworld, as well as its pedigree,above all epitomised by itschief architect, Dr Ambedkar. However, its depth comes fromthe 299-member Constituent Assembly which was broadlyrepresentative of the country. Each of the 15 women members in the Assembly, for example, was there in her own right. Some of them, such as Durgabai Deshmukhand RajkumariAmrit Kaur, wenton to make enduring contributionsto the nation. Twoother members,Hansa Jivraj Mehta and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, madetheir mark at theglobal level. the Assembly rendered gender justice a fait accompli, no matConstitution was adopted, her Declaration of Human Rights be absolute and unambiguous.
 Being one of the two female members of the UN Commis- sion that drafted the Declaration, Mehta insisted that in article 1, the expression “All men are created equal. . . ” be replaced by “All human beings are created equal. ” She reasoned that ‘men’ might be representative of all human beings but there could be occasions when women might be excluded. Eleanor Roosevelt, the other female member of the Commission, became its chairman and it was Mehta who proposed Roosevelt’s name.
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 People claiming the Constitution their own will be the ultimate safeguard against corrosion from within and sabotage from without.
-[[Category:India|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
+==November 26, 1949: the Constituent Assembly adopts the Constitution==
-THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)]]
+[https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-politics/samvidhan-divas-president-rajendra-prasad-speech-constitution-day-10387212/ Yashee, Nov 27, 2025: ''The Indian Express'']
 [[Category:Law,Constitution,Judiciary|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
-THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)]]
+Constitution Day of India 2025: On November 26, 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India, which came into effect on January 26, 1950. While January 26 is celebrated as Republic Day, since 2015, November 26 is observed as the Constitution Day of India, or Samvidhan Divas.
 [[Category:Pages with broken file links|THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
-THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)]]
+The Constituent Assembly took two years, 11 months and 17 days to draft the Constitution for Independent India. During this period, it held 11 sessions covering 165 days, and its members submitted around 7,600 amendments to the draft Constitution.
 =The drafting of the Constitution of India=

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:05, 25 March 2025
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	Nandalal Bose (team leader), Beohar Rammanohar Sinha, Dinanath Bhargava, Vinayak Shivram Masoji, A Perumal, Jagdish Mittal, Rajniti, Dhirendra Krishna Deb Barman, Kripal Singh Shekhawat, Sumitra Narayan, Biswarup Bose, Nibedita Bose, Gouri Bhanja, Jamuna Sen, Bani Patel, and others		Nandalal Bose (team leader), Beohar Rammanohar Sinha, Dinanath Bhargava, Vinayak Shivram Masoji, A Perumal, Jagdish Mittal, Rajniti, Dhirendra Krishna Deb Barman, Kripal Singh Shekhawat, Sumitra Narayan, Biswarup Bose, Nibedita Bose, Gouri Bhanja, Jamuna Sen, Bani Patel, and others
		+
		+	==22 illustrations==
		+	[https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-culture/constitution-illustrations-row-explained-9830021/ Vandana Kalra, Feb 11, 2025: ''The Indian Express'']
		+
		+	''' These 22 hand-painted images in the Constitution include scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, pictures of Ram, Mahatma Gandhi, and Subhas Chandra Bose. Nehru was also supposed to be included, but was eventually omitted. All you need to know '''
		+
		+	''' The illustrations '''
		+
		+	While the Constitution was handwritten by calligrapher Prem Behari Narain Raizada, the paintings were conceived and implemented in Santiniketan by artist-pedagogue Nandalal Bose and his team.
		+
		+	When placed in sequence, the narrative scheme of the paintings represents different periods in Indian history, from the Indus Valley civilisation to the freedom struggle, also including scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
		+
		+	The illustrations also showcase the diverse geography of India, from camels marching in the desert to the mighty Himalayas. “It is a sequence of images which is his (Nandalal’s) vision of India’s history. He is not illustrating the content of the Constitution, but he is placing the history of India as he saw it. Present-day scholars and historians might have some disagreements about the sequence but that was the broad chronology talked about back then,” said art historian R Siva Kumar.
		+
		+	''' The appointment of artists '''
		+
		+	Siva Kumar said Bose was approached with the task of illustrating in October 1949, just before the final session of the Constituent Assembly and the signing of the draft Constitution on November 26, 1949. “It is difficult to say how long the illustrations took and if they were completed before the signing…. in some instances, the signatures breach the space allotted for them and the borders skirt them, suggesting they were added later,” he said.
		+
		+	Two copies of the Constitution, one in English and one in Hindi, are handwritten and bear the paintings. Today, they are placed in a special helium-filled case in the Indian Parliament Library.
		+
		+	Bose was probably entrusted with the task due to his long association with the nationalist movement. A close aide of Mahatma Gandhi, he had designed posters for the Congress session at Haripura, near Bardoli in Gujarat, in 1938.
		+
		+	On the Constitution, Bose worked with a team of collaborators which included close family members, his students and fellow-artists, including Kripal Singh Shekhawat, A Perumal, and Direndrakrishna Deb Burman.
		+
		+	The Preamble page has intricate patterns sketched by Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and bears his signature, while Dinanath Bhargava sketched the National Emblem, the Lion Capital of Ashoka.
		+
		+	Siva Kumar said a note found among Nandalal’s papers suggests that the artists who painted the historical scenes were paid Rs 25 for each page.
		+
		+	It is believed that it was Jawaharlal Nehru who wanted the Constitution handwritten, and therefore Raizada, a graduate from Delhi’s St Stephen’s College, was approached. The calligrapher, who had learnt the art from his grandfather, immediately agreed. Not charging a penny for the task, his only request was to have his name on each page and alongside his grandfather on the last. Allotted a room in the Constitution Hall, he reportedly took six months to complete the task, writing on parchment sheets both in Hindi and English.
		+
		+	''' The ideation of the artwork '''
		+
		+	According to Siva Kumar, the text and images in the Constitution have no direct correlation, as Nandalal was not illustrating the text or studying its details while planning the visual narrative. “A preliminary plan was drawn up, which saw deletions and additions,” Siva Kumar said.
		+
		+	For instance, ‘portraits of Akbar and Shahjahan with Mughal architecture’ was replaced with an image of Akbar.
		+
		+	Ashish Anand, CEO and Managing Director of DAG, said: “Nandalal Bose’s career varied across his watercolour washes to his expressionist subaltern works in Santiniketan, and, indeed, the selection and style as well as imaging spans this spectrum in terms of subjects and influences. Illustrating the Constitution was a task that would survive for centuries, an onerous responsibility — and Nandalal Bose’s stamp exemplifies as well as expands the vision of the document it represents.”
		+
		+	''' Borrowing from history and religion '''
		+
		+	The Bull Seal, excavated from the Indus Valley region, is the first pictorial representation in the Constitution, appearing in ‘Part I: The Union and its Territory’. ‘Part II: Citizenship’ features a hermitage scene with male ascetic figures offering prayers in a meditative environment. In another scene of hermitage that appears in Part V, Buddha is the central figure, surrounded by disciples, animals, and birds in a serene setting.
		+
		+	Out of the select representations in colour is an image in Part VI of Mahavir, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, seated crossed-legged in meditation.
		+
		+	In Part XIII, we see sculptures from Mahabalipuram and the descent of Ganga to Earth.
		+
		+	Part IV on Directive Principles of State Policy begins with a scene from the Mahabharata, with the discussion between Arjun and Krishna before the onset of the war. For Part III on Fundamental Rights, the artists turned to the Ramayana, drawing a sketch of Ram, Lakshman and Sita returning home after the battle in Lanka.
		+
		+	''' India’s monarchs '''
		+
		+	While Emperor Ashoka is seen seated on an elephant, propagating Buddhism, in Part VII of the Constitution, Part IX has a scene from King Vikramaditya’s court with musicians and dancers, representing him as a patron of art.
		+
		+	The only female figure illustrated prominently in the Constitution, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, is sketched in her armour as she shares the page with Tipu Sultan, the king of Mysore, in Part XVI of the Constitution. Chhatrapati Shiva ji and Guru Gobind Singh are featured in Part XV.
		+
		+	“Portraits of Rana Pratap and Ranjit Singh were also meant to be there but were not included probably due to space constraints,” Siva Kumar said.
		+
		+	''' The country’s freedom struggle '''
		+
		+	Gandhi appears twice, leading the Dandi March and visiting riot-hit Noakhali in Bangladesh. He is being welcomed by women with an aarti thali and Muslim peasants wearing kufi caps.
		+
		+	In Part XIX, Subhas Chandra Bose is seen against a mountainous backdrop, saluting the flag, with members of Azad Hind Fauj marching ahead.
		+
		+	Nehru was also supposed to be included, but was eventually omitted.
		+
		+	Siva Kumar said three landscapes in the Constitution are a homage to Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore and the National Anthem he composed, which also celebrates the diverse geographical landscapes of India.
		+
		+	[[Category:India\|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
		+	THE CONSTITUTION OF INDI]]
		+	[[Category:Law,Constitution,Judiciary\|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
		+	THE CONSTITUTION OF INDI]]
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		+	THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA]]

	== Nandlal Bose’ chapter titles==		== Nandlal Bose’ chapter titles==

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 =Illustrations in the 1st print edition=
 == Nandlal Bose’ chapter titles==
 [https://epaper.timesgroup.com/Olive/ODN/TimesOfIndia/shared/ShowArticle.aspx?doc=TOIDEL%2F2019%2F09%2F12&entity=Ar01605&sk=FAB0BD66&mode=text  Sep 12, 2019: ''The Times of India'']
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 =The architects of India’s Constitution=

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-=India’s deceptive Constitution=
+==Difficult circumstances under which India's Constitution was adopted==
 [http://www.thehindu.com/specials/in-depth/november-26-celebrating-constitution-day/article7918507.ece ''The Hindu''], November 26, 2015
@@ Line 404: / Line 406: @@
 .	The Constitution expressly guarantees every citizen important fundamental rights, which may be subject to only certain restrictions. These rights include the ability to freely speak and express oneself; the freedom of conscience and to profess, practise, and even propagate a religion; basic protections against arbitrary arrest and detention by authorities, and various cultural and educational guarantees.
 =The making and implementation of the Sublime Constitution=

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 '' Singh is the co-author of ‘Nehru:The debates that defined India’ ''
-[[Category:India|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
+==The 15 women who wrote the Constitution==
-THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)]]
+[https://indianexpress.com/article/research/the-women-who-wrote-the-constitution-of-india-9198311/  March 6, 2024: ''The Indian Express'']
 [[Category:Law,Constitution,Judiciary|CTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
-THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)]]
+''' The women who wrote the Constitution of India '''
 [[Category:Pages with broken file links|THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)
-THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA (ISSUES)]]
+Among the 299-member Constituent Assembly, there were 15 women who advocated passionately for a kind of India that would bear the imprint of both genders. They argued ardently over a range of topics from reservations to the Uniform Civil Code.
 =The original copies of the Constitution=

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 [[The Constitution of India: Amendments 51-75]]<>
 [[The Constitution of India: Amendments 76-100]] <>
-[[The Constitution of India: individual Articles explained]]
+==And also==
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 [[File: The making of the Constitution of India.jpg|The making of the Constitution of India; Graphic courtesy: [http://epaperbeta.timesofindia.com/Gallery.aspx?id=27_11_2015_016_026_002&type=P&artUrl=THE-NATIONS-CONSCIENCE-27112015016026&eid=31808 ''The Times of India''], November 27, 2015|frame|500px]]
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 But there is no denying that it has stood the test of time.
 == Gems of fundamental rights hidden within constitution==
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 On the liberties and freedoms needed for a human being to live with dignity , Justice Chelameswar said, “I am of the opinion that a better view of the whole scheme of the chapter on fundamental rights is to look at each one of the guaranteed rights not as a series of isolated points, but as a rational continuum of the legal concept of liberty , that is freedom from all substantial, arbitrary encroachments and purposeless restraints sought to be made by the state.“
 =Features=