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[[Category:India|V]]
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=The Arrival of the Aryans=

By Mubarak Ali  

[http://dawn.com/ Dawn] 16 Nov 2008


During the early civilisations, different tribes and communities used to migrate from one place to another to find land for cultivation and food. Moreover, climate change, natural disasters and clashes among tribes also forced them to move to safer places. During Bronze and Iron ages, migration increased because the people had conveyance and domesticated animals to carry them and their belongings. They also became aware of geographical locations of the known sites of their time.

Experts suggest that in 2000BC Aryans moved from the Caspian Sea, where they were initially inhabited, and migrated to different parts of Europe and India, which is why they are called Indo-European.

In 1500BC they started to arrive in India via Iran and Afghanistan. Their arrival coincided with the decline of the Indus Valley civilisation which began in 1700BC. Therefore, there were no authority figures to keep an eye on the immigrants. Moreover, during the ancient period, there was plenty of land and lesser population so that the newly arrived Aryans did not create any difficulties for the old inhabitants.

So far, it was believed that Aryans invaded India and pushed the indigenous people to other parts of India. But according to a new research, Aryans were not invaders but migrants who came in different groups from time to time and settled in India along with local people.

Recently some historians debated that Aryans were not foreigners but local Indians and migrated from India to other parts of the world. The reason of this theory is to reject the other theory that reveals that India was always ruled by foreigners and locals submitted to them. However, there is no historical evidence of this argument, and that is the reason it was rejected by the historians.

===MEANING OF ‘ARYA’===

The word ‘Arya’ was used both as an adjective as well as to define the race. In Sanskrit it means ‘noble’ or ‘a person who belongs to the upper class’. Therefore, it was used for those people who belonged to the prestigious race. According to experts, the word ‘Arya’ was derived from an ancient Iranian word ‘ar-ya’ which is used in Zoroastrians’ sacred book Avesta. Later on, it was used for Aryans as a race.

In India, Aryan civilisation was very much influenced by their sacred books, Vedas, therefore, their early period in history is known as Vedic period. Historians have divided it into two parts: first from 1500 to 800BC, and the second from 800 to 500BC. During this period they settled in India and developed their religious beliefs, social, cultural values and customs. Our sources to get information about their social and economic activities are Vedas and other writing pieces of that era.

When they first arrived in India, they settled in Punjab. Their first Veda was ‘Rig-Veda’ which was compiled here. However, gradually they moved from Indus Valley because of their conflict with the locals, natural calamities and wars among their own tribes. Another reason for migration was that during that period, Iran occupied Punjab and Sindh. Feeling themselves unsafe due to the presence of Iranians, they migrated to the valley of Ganges and Yamuna. There they developed their culture and religious rituals, and at the same time they mixed up with the local people and adopted a number of customs from them.

=== Aryans migrated 4000 years ago ===
[https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/20170807-vedic-aryan-race-genetics-dna-europe-indians-europe-caspian-1026540-2017-07-28 Razib Khan , The Aryan wars India Today 7/8/2017]

''' See graphic '''

[[File: Arrival of Aryans .jpg| Arrival of Aryans [https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/20170807-vedic-aryan-race-genetics-dna-europe-indians-europe-caspian-1026540-2017-07-28 India Today]|frame|500px]]

=The Vedas=

By Mubarak Ali  

[http://dawn.com/ Dawn] 23 Nov 2008 



Rig-Veda was the first Veda which was compiled in India by the Aryan scholars. ‘Rig’ means ‘praise’ and Veda means ‘knowledge’, therefore Rig-Veda means ‘in praise of knowledge’. It was written in Sanskrit language. It is estimated that it was compiled either in 1000 or in 1100 BC. The language used in this Veda is quite outdated; therefore, most of its words could not be deciphered by the modern-day experts. The ‘Ashlok’ or songs included in this Veda are advised to be properly and correctly pronounced. These Ashloks were written by rashis or religious scholars and philosophers of that time. It is said that 115 were written by women and some of them were contributed by shudra caste (lower caste) people. Most of these Ashloks, instead of dealing with religious rituals, are related to the themes of conquests, wealth and food.

The Ashloks of Rig-Veda are written as poetic dialogues. A question is asked and then its answer is narrated. It was the responsibility of the Brahma caste to memorise those Vedas in order to preserve them in original form. They recited them on special occasions to perform social and religious rituals. It was also their responsibility to pronounce each and every word correctly.

After Rig-Veda three more Vedas were written: Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Athar-Veda. These Vedas consist of religious Ashloks which were sung on religious occasions.

===Brahmanas===

Besides Vedas, religious books were also written during the Vedic period. Some of them interpreted Vedas and some of them provided new meanings in view of changing times to make them relevant to the situation. The religious knowledge and its interpretation was monopolised by the Brahman caste. It was in their interest to keep the knowledge of Vedas to their caste, as it made them a privileged caste. In order to keep it within their own caste, they made religious rituals complicated and difficult so that only they could perform them. They also fixed rules and regulations on how to recite and how to pronounce the texts of Vedas.

In order to explain the meanings of Vedas, they wrote books which were called Brahmanas. The period of their compilation was from 600 to 200 BC. The themes which were discussed in these books included the reason of man’s birth and rebirth in this world and the mortality of life. These books advised human beings to do good deeds for their salvation.

One of these books is known as ‘Aranyakas’. It is said that this book should be read in the peaceful environment of forest and in a state of loneliness. Those people who retired from life and took refuge as ascetic in forests used to read this book there. 

=The Upanishads=

By Mubarak Ali  

[http://dawn.com/ Dawn] 30 Nov 2008


Upanishad means the inner or mystic teaching. The term Upanishad is derived from upa (near), ni (down) and s(h)ad (to sit), i.e., sitting down near. Groups of pupils sit near the teacher to learn from him the secret doctrine. One of the most important topics that were discussed in these sessions was how an individual can obtain long-lasting strength for his soul. Further it was taught that the major responsibility of an individual in this world is to seek the truth because this is the only way to acquire salvation.

The Upanishads’ are in question-answer form in which a father asks question to his son, husband to his wife, and Brahman to Kashtria. Those who participated in these discussions included rulers, Brahmans, women, and common people. Following is one of the examples of such discussions.

A father asked his son to dissolve salt in water and report him the next morning. The son did as he was told. In the morning, the father asked the son to bring salt. The son tried to find it in the water but there was no trace of it. He reported it to his father who told him to taste the water and tell him about it. After tasting the water, the son told that it was salty. The father explained to his son that like the dissolved salt in water, truth is hidden in you and you have to discover it. The lesson of the story is that one has to struggle to find out the hidden truth.

It is said that the total number of Upanishads were 150. However, experts recognised 108 as genuine.

===PURANAS===

‘Puranas’ are the collections of old songs. They also contain the history of rulers and rishis or religious scholars. Instructions about prayers, offerings to gods, religious rituals, social and cultural ceremonies and festivals were also present in puranas. It was also in question-answer form. The guru or religious teacher questions his chela or disciple and he answers it which ends up with the concluding remarks of the teacher. There are also stories, myths and philosophical problems which are narrated in beautiful format.

So far the experts have not been able to determine the time when these writings came into being. However, some estimate that these writing styles emerged in the 6th century BC. They also contain some historical material especially the social and religious activities of early Vedic period. One of the interesting themes of these writings is the rise and fall of the kingdoms and conflict between good and evil.



=The Mahabharata=

By Mubarak Ali  

[http://dawn.com/ Dawn]  6 Dec 2008

‘Mahabharata’ is a long epic poem which was written by Vyasa, a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions. Mahabharata is a collection of different events which are described in the form of a long story. It begins with a conflict between five Pandavas and 100 Kauravas brothers on the question of land. The Pandavas were five acknowledged sons of Pandu by his two wives Kunti and Madri. Their names are Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. All five brothers were married to one woman, Draupadi. The story takes a dramatic turn when the Pandavas lose their kingdom as well as their wife Draupadi to Kauruvas in gambling.

According to the agreement, they were exiled for 13 years. After completing their punishment when they came back and demanded their kingdom from their cousins, the Kauruvas refused and thus violated the terms of the contract. This led to a great war between the two groups. It is stated that no ruler of that time fought on the side of the Pandavas. It took place at Kurukshetra which is situated north of Delhi. It continued for 18 days and thousands of people were killed. Ultimately the Pandavas won the battle. However, their victory was not because of their bravery but because of their legitimate cause. So, it was a moral victory to the Pandavas.

The story of Mahabharata was written in Sanskrit language and narrated in 100,000 verses. The events of the war were divided into eight parts. Historically, whatever happened during 1000 to 700 BC is described in the story. The epic is a rich source on evolving social practices, morality, amusement, and religious thoughts in India.

===Bhagavad Gita===

The sixth part of Mahabharata is called ‘Bhagavad-Gita’ which means ‘song of god’. It contains 700 verses which are further divided into 19 parts. The content of the Gita is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra war.

When Arjuna saw his own relatives and teacher standing against him in the battlefield he asked Krishna how he could kill his own kith and kin. Responding to Arjuna’s confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explained to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince; it elaborates on different philosophies, with examples and analogies.

Krishna told Arjuna that being a ‘khastriya’, it was his duty to fight without taking care of the consequences. Secondly, if he kills somebody during the war, the body of the slain would be destroyed but his soul would remain alive and he would come back after rebirth. Thus he explained that death is not the end of life.

Besides moral guidance, Bhagavad Gita also contains lessons on meditation, yoga, virtues, loyalty to gods and many other philosophical themes related to everyday life. The Hindus regard Bhagavad Gita as a sacred book of their religion.


=See also=
[[Harappa]]
  
[[The Indus Valley Civilisation]]  

[[The Vedic Civilisation I]]

[[The Vedic Civilisation II]]

[[The Vedic Civilisation III]]