Revision as of 12:23, 21 July 2013

SYSTEM OF CASTE

By Mubarak Ali

Dawn 3 Jan 2009

Whenever a civilisation develops, it gets divided into classes based on wealth and power. Those who do not have property and resources are thrown into the category of poor and helpless. Class division weakens a society and decreases its strength. If somebody is born in an elite class, he automatically takes up a high status. Merit and intelligence play no role in determining the position of an individual.

Compared to class, caste system was quite different. It was introduced by the Aryans in the Indian subcontinent. It deepened its roots with the passage of time and became an integral part of Indian civilisation.

In the Vedic period, the caste system was based on colour or Varna. This differentiated Aryans from the local population who were dark-complexioned. However, in the beginning there was mobility in the caste system. When Aryans moved from Indus Valley to the Ganges and Yamuna plains, caste system became very rigid and got affiliated with the professions. If somebody was born in a particular caste, he could not change it. It is called jati in Hindi language (the word literally means ‘births’). In this system profession and caste were linked with each other.

Religion was used to solidify this system. It was argued that for salvation of soul, an individual had to observe the rules and regulation of the caste in which he was born. Any violation of this rule would condemn him to be born again and again in the form of animals and insects. The concept to follow caste rule was known as dharma.

Some historians admire the caste system and argue that for centuries this maintained peace and harmony in the Indian society and prevented conflicts. However, some historians criticise this system and state that because of it, Indian society remained far behind time and got conquered repeatedly by foreign invaders.

Four Castes

By Mubarak Ali

Dawn 10 Jan 2009

Hindu society has traditionally been categorised into four classes: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. These four castes are further divided into sub-castes which make the society more complicated.

During the early period when wars were fought against the local population, the warrior class acquired the most respectful position in the society as they were the one responsible for defending and protecting their people. However, when peace prevailed in the society, status of warriors was relegated and Brahmans, as priests and spiritual leaders, acquired topmost position in the society. They became the custodians of religious knowledge and prayed to gods on behalf of their people. Still there was no rigidity in the caste system and individuals could move from one caste to another. Gradually the social discrimination got hold of society and caste system became stricter than ever before. It became impossible for any one to change his birth caste. Brahmans made severe rules and regulations for each caste and acquired superior position in the society by virtue of their religious knowledge.

BRAHMANS

Brahmans were the topmost class of the Hindu society. They were priests who performed religious rituals and ceremonies. The status of Brahmans rose when Aryans settled in villages and started cultivation. As farmers, they completely depended on the mercy of nature to have rain, air and sunlight. In order to plea the gods to provide them with natural resources for cultivation; priests were required to perform religious sacrifices. They recited songs and ashloks in praise of gods. It was believed that in return of these sacrifices and praises, gods would protect them from natural calamities and fulfil their wishes. Brahmans in return of these religious services got cattle and women slaves from the community.

KSHATRIYAS

The meaning of Kashtriya is ‘to rule’. Therefore, Kshatriyas were fighters by profession. Their job was to defend their people. It was their dharma or religious duty. During Vedic period, weapons such as bow and arrow, dagger, ax, and sword were made with iron and as these goods were very costly therefore, only rich and wealthy people like Kshatriyas could afford to keep them. Whenever these warriors went for war, they used chariots and iron made weapons. Because of their wealth and power, Kashtriya caste was given a prestigious position in the Aryan society.

VAISYAS

The third caste was of Vaisyas. Traditionally the Vaisyas were traders and businessmen, or peasant farmers. They were expected to be specialists in their branch or trade, whether jewellery and precious metals, spices, cloth, furnishings, or, indeed, any kind of merchandise.

SUDRAS

The fourth caste was of Sudras which was the lowest in the society. It is assumed that Sudras were the products of mixed marriages between Aryans and local people. Because of their lowest status they were not allowed to attend sacrificial rituals which were aimed only for high castes. The upper caste people were not allowed to have any social contact with the Sudras. Sudras were prohibited to get educated.

They were forbidden to go to the temples reserved for the upper castes. However, later on, Sudras became cultivators and adopted agriculture as their profession.

The Untouchables

By Mubarak Ali

Dawn 17 Jan 2009

The untouchables were not included in any of the four castes of the Hindu society. They were not allowed to live along with the four castes in cities and villages. Therefore, they had to live outside the cities in their own separate settlements. Whenever the untouchables came to cities, they used to sweep their footsteps with the help of a broom because it was believed that by putting their feet, they had polluted the earth. They also hung a pot around their neck to avoid spitting on earth.

Despite all this, the untouchables were required to clean the houses, take away dirt and garbage, and to dispose off dead animals. They were forced to believe that their low status in society was the result of their bad deeds in previous life and they could get salvation only if they follow the caste rules and not deviate from them. Only then, in the next life, they would be born in a caste of higher status.

Mahatma Gandhi called them ‘harjan’ or ‘children of god’. However, untouchables call themselves dalits meaning ‘exploited ones’. Now, in India, they are struggling for their rights and fighting against the privileges enjoyed by the upper castes only.

WOMEN

In the early Vedic period, women had some freedom and they enjoyed some rights under Aryan rule. For example, they had the right to get education, study Vedas, and discuss poetry, philosophy and religious topics. They also had the liberty to choose their husbands. The custom of sati was also not found and there was no restriction on the marriage of widows.

However, a gradual change in the status of women occured in the later Vedic period and the status of women lowered down to the level of Sudras and animals. They were transformed into a symbol of sin. It became impossible for women to acquire education or get involved in social and cultural activities. The only duty of women was to marry and bear children for the family. If they failed to bear children, they lost all respect and were regarded as a burden on the society. As a wife, a woman’s duty was to be loyal to her husband. Sita had become a model of women’s virtue and loyalty.

In the early period there was no custom of sati. But later on, it became a tradition; the first example of sati was found in 316 BC. From then on, gradually, women were forced to burn along with their husbands’ dead bodies. Though this cruel custom was abolished during the colonial period, it is still practised by some communities in some parts of India.

Jainism

By Mubarak Ali

Dawn 24 Jan 2009

During the Vedic period, the Brahman caste gradually got hold of the society because of their monopoly in religious system. They performed all religious ceremonies and acted as intermediary between people and gods. They became an essential part for the society as all religious acts from birth to death were supervised by them. To keep their influence intact, they made the rituals complicated and expensive. It became impossible for a common man either to understand them or to pay the expenses.

Under these circumstances, two new religions emerged that challenged the Brahmans’ authority and struggled to liberate the society from their monopoly. They not only denied the religious teachings which were imparted by the Brahmans but also abandoned the idea that salvation of soul could only be achieved under their guidance. On the contrary, their emphasis was that one could get salvation individually by devoting his time to worship gods. There was no need of Brahmans’ assistance to approach gods.

The first person who raised his voice against Brahmanism was Vardhamana, popularly known as ‘Mahavira’ which means ‘the Great hero’. He was born around 599 BC and belonged to the Kshatriya family. He left his home and his family and wandered in search of truth which he did not find in Brahmanism. His teachings resulted in a new religion which is known as Jainmat which means ‘religion of victory’.

According to the teachings of Vardhamana, there is no need to ask gods and goddesses for any help regarding worldly affairs. Man is responsible for his own destiny. To get salvation of his soul he has to observe moral and ethical rules and regulations. One of the most important rules is to follow ahimsa or non-violence. If somebody is involved in violent activities, these acts would become a heavy burden on his soul and prevent salvation. He asked his followers to speak the truth, not to steal, and not to grab anybody’s property.

Jainism taught everything that was essential to live like a respected and responsible human being. Vardhamana was against all such ceremonies which required animal sacrifices. His followers do not eat meat and are strictly vegetarians. They take good care of animals, trees and plants. They also put a piece of cloth on their mouth and nose to prevent the entry of any insect inside in order to save it from getting killed by them.

As the teaching of Jainism is very strict, the number of its followers is limited. For example, for peasants it is difficult to observe its teachings because to save their crops they have to kill insects and birds. Therefore, generally, its followers are traders. They have their settlements in every part of India but the majority live in South India. It is a peaceful community.

Jainism greatly influenced Hinduism. It gave up animal sacrifices in religious rituals and adopted the habit to eat vegetables. Ahimsa or non-violence is another idea which has become significant part of the Indian society because of Jainism.

Buddhism

By Mubarak Ali

Dawn 31 Jan 2009

Buddhism is the result of Gautama Buddha’s search for absolute truth and peace, writes Mubarak Ali

Buddhism is the outcome of the journey of Gautama Buddha to find absolute truth and harmony. He was born around the year 580 BCE.

His real name was Siddhartha and his followers called him Buddha, which means ‘the awakened one’. Buddhism is a religion that believes in the personal spiritual attainment of the truth.

Buddha belonged to Kshatriya family and his father was the chief of Kapilavastu, a dependency of Kosala.

As a royal, he lived a privileged life which protected him from the common sufferings of the people around him. But one day he happened to go outside the boundaries of his palace the he come across the aged, the sick and a corpse; he found age, illness and death are a fate that cannot be avoidable.

Thus, depressed by all this his sensitivity grew and he immensely felt the pains of others. At the age of 30, he left his family and his comfortable life as a prince, in search of the ultimate truth. He wandered in forests and mountains, met holy men and practised meditation, and for six years followed a life of extreme asceticism, just to find the cause and to escape the inevitability of human sufferings. But he was not successful.

Finally, at the age of 35, while he was meditating under the shadow of a tree, he got absorbed in deep meditation and achieved enlightenment. From there he went to Sarnath, near the holy city of Banaras, and delivered his first sermon.

He spent the rest of his life in travelling to preach the subliminal truth to others who were tangled in the pleasures of physical existence. He was greatly admired by kings, merchants and locals who followed his teachings with absolute zeal. He died around 400BCE, peacefully in the presence of his disciples in Kashinagar.

According to his teachings, man could get salvation or nirvana of the soul only when he abandons his family life and lives among people as ascetic, because man is vulnerable to physical desires and attains it without realising the consequences of such desires. Thus, he violates all moral and ethical values by polluting his soul.

However, if he attains the path of simplicity he would overcome all the sufferings and get peace of mind. Siddhartha told his disciples that the world is full of sufferings and pain. Man is caught in the temptation of this physical world and consequently, he has to suffer sorrowfs in life. It is important to renounce worldly affairs for the salvation of the soul.

Buddhism became one of the major religions of the world. Its followers are found not only in India but also in South East Asia and other parts of the world.

Buddhism II

The ultimate truth

By Mubarak Ali

Dawn 7 Feb 2009

Those who had accepted Buddhism before and around the death of Gautama Buddha in 400BCE, left their respective homes and families and came together to live in a commune known as the sangha.

The monastery was called Vihara. Initially, these were simply built in timber, with thatched roofs, but with the passage of time, stones and bricks were also used in the construction to make them more durable and longer-lasting. Some sanghas were built by cutting through mountains to provide the priests silence and peace while worshipping and meditating.

Buddhist men and women lived separately in these monasteries. If anyone wanted to join the sangha, s/he had to take permission from his/her superior. For example, a son was supposed to ask his father and a slave was to seek permission from his master to join the group.

Those who lived in the monastery led a very simple life.

They begged for food, which is why the male members were known as bhakshu and women as bhakshun. There was no discrimination in terms of caste, creed and profession in the sangha and traders, soldiers and workers all lived together.

They spent most of their time praying and meditating. The stories which were written by the Bhakshus and Bhakshuns are called jataka.

It was customary for the followers of Jainism and Buddhism to go from one place to another for preaching. But during autumn and monsoon they stayed put because it was difficult to travel. Some wealthy people built buildings where these priests could stay during these seasons. These places were known as muths.

After the death of Buddha, his devotees buried his bones, hair, and teeth in different places and built pillars on them which were called stupas meaning ‘mounds’. Gradually, these stupas became holy places and devotees began coming here for worship. Such stupas are spread all over India.

During the Vedic period, many religious and philosophical ideas were produced and people discussed the mysteries of life, that of reality and that of the soul. The emphasis was on the idea that man should understand nature and his relationship with it. Meditation and yoga were adopted as thinking practices to seek the ultimate truth. It was believed that one could get solace and satisfaction in the silence of forests and mountains.

It is to be noted that during this period no great empire was established which could unite India. There was no military rule and no magnificent buildings, palaces, forts and tombs built to flaunt political power. There was no capital city which could become the centre for trade and commerce, or literary and cultural activities.

The philosophers and religious teachers belonging to that period centred their ideas on human suffering and sorrow, and focused all their energies in finding salvation for the soul. As far as worldly affairs were concerned, they left it upon the coming generation to tackle them.

See also

The Vedic Civilisation I

The Vedic Civilisation II

The Vedic Civilisation III