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Sikkim

Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts. Some units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value.

Native State in the Eastern Himalayas, lying between 27 5' and 28 9' N. and 87 59' and 88 56' E., with an area of 2,818 square miles. It is bounded on the north and east by Tibet; on the south-east by Bhutan ; on the south by Darjeeling District ; and on the west by Nepal, The Tibetan name for Sikkim is pronounced Denjong, and more rarely Demojong or Demoshong ; and the people are called Rong-pa, or 'dwellers in the valleys,' the term Mom-pa, or ' dwellers in the low country,' being used occasionally to describe the Lepcha inhabitants.

Physical aspects

The main axis of the Himalayas, which runs east and west, forms the boundary between Sikkim and Tibet. The Singalila and Chola ranges, which run southwards from the main chain, separate Sikkim from Nepal on the west, and from aspects. Tibet and Bhutan on the east. From the eastern flank of the Singalila range rise the great snow peaks of KINCHINJUNGA (28,146 feet), one of the highest mountains in the world j it throws out a second spur terminating at Tendong. The Chola range, which is much loftier than that of Singalila, leaves the main chain at the DONGKYA mountain ; it is pierced by several passes, the most fre- quented of which are the Tangkar La (16,000 feet), Natu La (14,200 feet), and JELEP LA (14,390 feet). Over the last named comes prac- tically the whole trade between Bengal and Tibet. From the north- west face of the Dongkya mountain an immense spur takes off and runs first west and then south-west to Kinchinjunga, forming the water- shed of all the remote sources of the Tista. This spur has a mean elevation of from 18,000 to 19,000 feet; but several of its peaks, of which Chomiomo is one, rise much higher. Sikkim may be in fact described as the catchment area of the headwaters of the Tista river. The whole of the State is situated at a considerable elevation within the Himalayan mountain zone, the ranges that bound it on three sides forming a kind of horseshoe, from the sides of which dependent spurs project, serving as lateral barriers to the Rangit and the Tlsta's greater affluents, the Lachung, Lachen ; Zemu, Talung, Rongni, and Rangpo. These basins have a southward slope, being broad at the top where they leave the watershed, and gradually contracting, like a fan from its rim to its handle, in the Tista valley near Pashok. The rivers are very rapid and generally run in deep ravines, the ascent from the bank for the first few hundred feet being almost precipitous. Sikkim is covered by gneissic rocks, except in the central portion where metamorphic rocks belonging to the Baling series occur 1 .

Sir J. D, Hooker divides the country into three zones, calling the lower up to 5,000 feet above the sea, the tropical thence to 13,000 feet, the upper limit of tree vegetation, the temperate; and above to the perpetual snowline at 16,000 feet, the alpine. South of the Penlong La, where the Nepalese have been allowed to settle, the more productive sites have been cleared for cultivation up to 6,000 feet, the greatest height at which maize ripens ; and trees ordinarily remain only in the rocky ravines and on the steepest slopes where no crops can be grown. The tropical zone is characterized by large figs, Temnwalia, Vatica, Myrtaceae^ laurels, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, Baithinia, Bombax, Moms, Artocarpus and other Urticaceae, and many Leguminosae ; and the undergrowth consists of Acanthaceae, bamboos, several Calami, two dwarf Arecae, Wallichia, and Caryofa urens. Plantains and tree- ferns, as well as Pandamis, are common ; and, as in all moist tropical countries, ferns, orchids, Stitamineae, and Pothos are extremely abun- dant. Oaks, of which (including chestnuts) there are upwards of eleven species in Sikkim, become abundant at about 4,000 feet; and at 5,000 feet the temperate zone begins, the vegetation varying with the degree of humidity. On the outermost ranges, and on northern exposures, there is a dense forest of cherry, laurels, oaks, and chest- nuts, Magnolia, Andromeda, Sfjrax, Pyrus, maple and birch, with an underwood of Araliaceae, Holboellia, Li mom' a, Daphne, Ardisia, Myr- sineae, Symplocos, Ritbia, and a prodigious variety of ferns. Plectocomia and Mi(sa ascend to 7,000 feet. On drier exposures bamboo and tall grasses form the underwood. Rhododendrons appear below 6,000 feet, becoming abundant at 8,000 feet, while from 10,000 to 14,000 feet they form the mass of the shrubby vegetation. Orchids are plentiful from 6,000 to 8,000 feet and Vaccinia between 5,000 and 8,000 feet. The sub-alpine zone begins at about 13,000 feet, at which elevation a dense rhododendron scrub occupies the slopes of the mountains, filling up the valleys so as to render them impenetrable. In this zone the chief forms of the vegetation are Gentiana, Primula, Pedicularis, Meconopsis, and such-like genera, gradually changing to a Siberian flora, which at last entirely supersedes that of the sub-alpine zone and ascends above 18,000 feet.

The tiger is only an occasional visitor; but the leopard (Felis pardiis) and the clouded leopard (F. nebulosa] are fairly common, the latter

1 Journal, Asiatic Society, Bengal, vol. xxxi, - Journal of a Trip undertaken to explore the Glaciers of the Kinchinjunga Group in the Sikkim Himalaya,' by J. L. Sherwill; Records, Geological Survey of India, vol. xxiv, pts. i and iv, ' Extracts from the Journal of a Trip to the Glaciers of Kabru, Pandim, &c.; and 'The Geology and Mineral Resources of Sikkim,' by P, N, Bose. ascending to about 7,000 feet, The snow leopaid (F. undo) inhabits the higher altitudes, while the marbled cat (F. marmorata} and the leopard cat (F. bengaknsis) are found on the warmer slopes, The large Indian civet cat (Viverra zibetha) is not uncommon up to 5,500 feet, and the spotted tiger-civet (Prionodon pardicolor\ though rare, occurs between 5,000 and 6,000 feet. A palm-civet (Parodoxurits grayi) is fairly common in the warmer forest. The cat-bear (Aelurus fulgens) occurs from about 7,000 feet upwards. The brown bear ( Ursus ardus) is found at high altitudes, rarely below n,ooo or 12,000 feet, and the Himalayan black bear (U. torquatus) is common from that point down to about 4,000 feet. Though these are the only two bears recorded, the Lepchas assert the existence of a third species, possibly to be identified with U. malayam^. The sambar (Cervus unicolor) is fre- quent at all elevations up to 9,000 or ro,ooo feet. The commonest of the deer tribe is the barking-deer (Cervulus muntjac), found from the lowest valleys up to 9,000 feet; the musk deer (Moschus moschi- ferus] remains always at high elevations, rarely descending below 8,000 feet even in winter. The serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus] fre- quents the rockiest ravines over 6,000 feet, while the goml (Cemas goral) affects similar localities, but descends to 3,000 feet and is found up to 8,000. The bharal (Ovis nahura] is found in considerable herds at high altitudes. An exceptionally large number of birds and butter- flies occur in the State.

The climate varies between the tropical heat of the valleys and the alpine cold of the snowy ranges. The rainfall is very heavy, averaging 137 inches annually at Gangtok. From November to February the rainfall is light, and the weather in November and December is clear and fine. In March thunderstorms commence and, growing more and more frequent, usher in the rainy season, which lasts till October.

History

Sikkim was known to early European travellers, such as Horace della Penna and Samuel Van de Putte, under the name of Bramashon (see Markham's Tibet, p. 64) ; while Bogle called it Demojong. Local traditions assert that the ancestors of the Rajas of Sikkim originally came from the neighbourhood of Lhasa in Tibet. About the middle of the seventeenth century, the head of the family was named Puntso Namgye ; and to him repaired three Tibetan monks, professors of the Nyingmapa (or ' red cap ' sect of Buddhism), who were disgusted at the predominance of the Gelukpa sect in Tibet. These Lamas, according to Mr. Edgar's Report, suc- ceeded in converting the Lepchas of Sikkim to their own faith, and in making Puntso Namgye Raja of the country. The avatars of two of these Lamas are now the heads, respectively, of the great monasteries of Pemiongchi and Tassiding. In 1788 the Gurkhas invaded Sikkim in the governorship of the Morang or tarai, and only retired, in 1789, on the Tibetan government ceding to them a piece of territory at the head of the Koti pass. But in 1792, on a second invasion of Tibetan territory by the Gurkhas, an immense Chinese army advanced to the support of the Tibetans, defeated the Gurkhas, and dictated terms to them almost at the gates of Katmandu.

On the breaking out of the Nepal War in 1814, Major Latter at the head of a British force occupied the Morang, and formed an alliance with the Raja of Sikkim, who gladly seized the opportunity of revenging himself on the Gurkhas. At the close of the war in 1816, the Raja was rewarded by a considerable accession of territory, which had been ceded to the British by Nepal. In February.! 83 5, the Raja granted the site of Darjeeling to the British, and receivJfe a pension of Rs. 3,000 per annum in lieu of it.

There was, however, a standing cause of quarrel between the Raja and the paramount power, due to the prevalence of slavery in Sikkim ; the Raja's subjects were inveterate kidnappers, and the Raja himself was most anxious to obtain from the British authorities the restoration of runaway slaves. With some notion of enforcing the latter demand, Dr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Darjeeling, and Dr. Hooker, the famous naturalist, were seized in 1849 whilst travelling in Sikkim, and detained for six weeks. As a punishment for this outrage the Raja's pension was stopped, and a piece of territory, including the lower course of the Tista and the Sikkim tarai, was annexed. The practice of kidnapping Bengali subjects of the British Crown was, however, not discontinued; and two especially gross cases in 1860 led to an order that the Sikkim territory, north of the Ramman river and west of the Ranglt, should be occupied until restitution was made. Colonel Gawler, at the head of a British force, with the Hon. Ashley Eden as envoy, advanced into Sikkim and proceeded to Tumlong, when the Raja was forced to make full restitution, and to sign a treaty (in March, 1861) which secured the rights of free trade, of protection for travellers, and of road-making. For many years the State was left to manage its own affairs ; but for some time prior to 1888 the Tibetans were found to be intriguing with the Maharaja, who became more and more unfriendly. Affairs reached a climax in 1888, when war broke out with the Tibetans, who took up a position n miles within Sikkim territory. British troops were sent against them, and they were driven off with ease. In 1889 a Political officer subordinate to the Commissioner of the Rajshahi Division was stationed at Gangtok to advise and assist the Maharaja and his council; and this was followed in 1890 by the execution of a convention with the Chinese, by which the British protectorate over Sikkim and its exclusive control over the internal administration and foreign relations of the State were recognized. Since the Tibetan expedition of 1904, the Political officer has been directly responsible to the Government of India. The Maharaja receives a salute of 15 guns.

Population

After the appointment of the Political officer in 1889 communica* tions were greatly improved by the construction of roads and bridges, and the settlement of Nepalese was permitted in certain parts of the State. These measures were pu a lon ' followed by a rapid development of the country. Settlers from Nepal flocked in, and the population, which in 1891 was returned at 30,458, had grown to 59,014 ten years later; an increase of 93-7 per cent. The first Census was admittedly incomplete; but a great deal of the increase is accounted for by the growth of the immigrant population, as of the total inhabitants in 1901 no fewer than 22,720, or 38-5 per cent., had been born in Nepal. In addition, the climate is good; there have been no serious epidemics; the people have been pros- perous and they are very prolific, the crowds of children being a striking feature of every Sikkim hamlet. The State is still very sparsely populated, having a density of only 21 persons per square mile ; but a great quantity of waste land is fit for cultivation, and it is probable that the population will continue to grow at a very rapid rate. As elsewhere where the Mongoloid element of the population prepon- derates, there is a great excess of males over females. The principal diseases are fever, diseases of the respiratory system, worms, bowel complaints, and skin diseases. Deaf-mutism is far more common than elsewhere in Bengal. The Census of 1901 returned 125 villages ; but in reality Sikkim contains few true villages, except in the Lachen and Lachung valleys in the north of the State. Here the houses, somewhat similar in appearance to Swiss chalets, cluster together in the valley bottoms. In southern Sikkim the nearest approach to villages is to be found in the groups of houses near the Maharaja's palaces at Tumlong and Gangtok; round some of the larger monas- teries, such as Pemiongchi, Tassiding, and Pensung; and at the copper-mines of Pache near Dikyiling, and the bazars at Rangpo, Rhenok, Pakhyong, Namchi, Manjhltar, Tokul, and Seriong. Khas- kura is the dialect of 27 per cent, of the population, while most of the others speak languages of the Tibeto-Burrnan family, including Bhotia, Limbu, Lepcha, Murmi, Mangar, Khambu, and Newar. Of the total population, 38,306, or 65 per cent., are Hindus, and 20,544, or nearly 35 per cent., are Buddhists. Buddhism, which is of the Tibetan or Lamaist type, is the State religion of Sikkim, which contains about 36 monasteries. Most of the Buddhists are members of the two main indigenous castes, Lepchas and Bhotias (8,000 each). The Lepchas claim to be the autochthones of Sikkim proper. Their physical charac- teristics stamp them as members of the Mongolian race, and certain peculiarities of language and religion render it probable that the tribe is a very ancient colony from southern Tibet. They are above all things woodmen, knowing the ways of birds and beasts and possessing an extensive zoological and botanical nomenclature of their own. The chief Nepalese tribes represented are the Khambu, Limbu, MurmT, Gurung, Khas, Kami, Mangar, Newar, and Damai. The great majority of the population (92 per cent.) are supported by agriculture.

In 1901 Christians numbered 135, of whom 125 were natives. The missions at work in the State are the Church of Scotland Mission and the Scandinavian Alliance Mission.

Agriculture

By far the most important crop is maize, which occupies a larger area than all the other crops together; it is estimated to cover 94 square miles. After maize, the largest areas are under mania, buckwheat, rice, wheat, and barley, which are estimated to cover from 4,000 to 12,000 acres each. Carda- moms, grown on about 600 acres, are a valuable crop. Cultivation has lapidly extended in recent years, but a large quantity of cultivable waste still remains. Plantains, oranges, and other fruits are grown in the gardens, and the Government apple orchards started at Lachung and Lachen are proving a success. Cattle, yaks, and sheep of various kinds are bred in the State and are also imported from Tibet

Forests

The principal trees have been enumerated in the section on Botany. The forests have suffered much from promiscuous cutting, and also from fires caused by villagers when clearing ground for cultivation. An attempt is now being made to introduce a proper system of forest conservancy. Pine, tun (Cedrela Toona), Cryptomeria; fir, alder, beech, chestnut, and a few other kinds have been raised in nurseries for planting by the roadsides ; and an avenue of 150 rubber-trees planted at Singtam is doing well. The receipts from forests in 1903-4 were Rs, 19,000, derived chiefly from the sale of railway sleepers and tea-box planking ; the expenditure in the same year was K.S. 12,000.

Minerals

Copper ores are very widespread in Sikkim. The ore is copper pyrites, often accompanied by mundic, and occurs chiefly in the Baling beds. It is generally disseminated in slates and schists, and seldom occurs in true lodes. The analysis of a sample taken at random from the deeper part of a copper- mine at Pachikham gave 20-3 per cent, of copper. Some ores have been recently smelted and exported for sale on a small scale under State supervision, but the experiments have not proved remunerative. Iron occurs chiefly as pyrites, being most plentiful at Bhotang, where magnetite is also found ; but it has not yet been put to any economic use. Garnet is in places abundant in the gneiss and mica schists, but it is of poor quality.

Trade and communications

A weaving school at Lachung has done well ; tweed suitings and blankets are the chief articles made. 'There arc several trade routes through Sikkim from Darjeeling District into Tibet; but owing partly to the natural difficulties of the country, and partly to the jealousy of the Tibetan authorities, trade over these roads has never been fully developed. In the convention of 1890 provision was made for the opening of a trade route; but the results were disappointing, and the failure of the Tibetans to fulfil their obligations resulted in 1904 in the dispatch of a mission to Lhasa, where a new convention has been signed. In 1902-3 the total value of the trans-frontier trade was 19 lakhs, the principal imports being wool, musk, and yaks' tails, and the principal exports cotton piece-goods, woollen cloths, silk, tobacco, copper, iron and other metals, Chinese caps, chinaware, maize, and indigo, In 1903-4, when trade was disorganized, the value fell to y-| lakhs.

Good roads, properly bridged throughout, have been opened since 1889 from Pedong in British territory to the Jelep La and to Tumlong, and in 1903-4 the State contained 376 miles of road. A cart-road has recently been constructed from Rangpo to Gangtok from Imperial funds, and a mule-track on a gradient of i in 15 has been made from Gangtok to Chumbi via the Natula. Iron bridges have been constructed across the Tista, the Rangit, and other streams.

Administration

The Political officer, who is stationed at Gangtok, advises and assistb the Maharaja and his council, but no rules have yet been laid down for the civil and criminal administration. The landlords referred to in a later paragraph exercise a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction within the lands of which they collect the revenue, but all important cases are referred to the Maharaja or the Political officer. Those referred to the Maharaja are decided by him in consultation with his ministers (lompo), at present five in number, two of whom are always in attendance on him. Appeals are heard by the Maharaja sitting with one or more members of his council, or by a committee of the council. Capital sentences passed by other authorities require the confirmation of the Maharaja. The annual budget estimates of income and expenditure are, in the first instance, approved by the Maharaja and his council, and are then submitted for the sanction of the Government of India by the Political officer.

The total receipts in 1902-3 amounted to 1-58 lakhs, of which Rs. 61,000 was derived from the land, Rs. 37,000 from excise, Rs. 25,000 from forests, and Rs. 10,000 under the head of agriculture, of which Rs. 9,000 was derived from cardamom rents. In 1903-4 a great demand for labour was created by the Tibet mission and many vil- lagers left their houses ; a marked decrease in the collections of land and excise revenue resulted, and the total receipts dropped to 1.'54 lakhs. The excise revenue is mainly derived from the fees charged for licences to brew pachwai or rice-beer for home consumption, and from the fees charged for the manufacture and sale of country spirit ; the manufacture of the latter is conducted on the out-still system. The collection of the land revenue is in the hands of landlords variously known as Kazi landlords (numbering 21), Lama landlords (13), and thikaddrs (37). Under these are village headmen (styled pipon in Bhotia, tassa in Lepcha, and mandal in Khaskura), each headman being over those ryots whom he or his predecessors have introduced. The sum payable by each ryot is fixed by an informal committee of headmen and villagers, presided over by the landlord and his agent.

The rate now allowed to the landlord is 14 annas per pathi (about 4 seers) of seed for Nepalese ryots, and 8 annas per pathi for Lepcha and Bhotia ryots. In maize and other ' dry ' lands of fair quality about 4 pathis) and in terraced rice lands about 6 paihis, go to the acre. Terraced rice lands, however, more often pay produce rents on the kuth system, one-fourth of the out-turn being taken by the landlord. New land pays no rent for three years, in consideration of the labour involved in constructing the terraces. The pathi and kuth systems were introduced from Nepal and have now been adopted throughout the greater part of Sikkim. The monasteries, however, and some of the Sikkim Kazis still maintain the old practice of assessing each household according to its circumstances. Each land- lord pays to the State a sum fixed at the commencement of his lease. A man can settle down and cultivate any land he may find unoccupied without any formality whatever ; and when once he has occupied the land, no one but the Maharaja can turn him out. The latter, however, can eject him at any time ; and if he ceases to occupy the land, he does not retain any lien upon it, unless he pays rent for it as though he had cultivated it. In the Lachung and Lachen valleys the system is pecu- liar. Here the assessment on each village is communicated each year to pipon or village headman, who collects the rents but gets nothing for his trouble except exemption from the obligation of carrying loads and from the labour tax. Ihtpipon calls a committee of all the adult males over fifteen years of age at the end of the year and, in consulta- tion with them, fixes what each individual should pay, having regard to his general condition, the number of his cows, mules, ponies, and yaks, and the quantity of land in his possession. There are no fixed rates ; but the assessment on animals appears to work out at about 3 annas for each cow or yak, and 4 annas for each mule or pony. In the upper part of Lachung the villagers redistribute the fields among themselves every three years by lot, the richer people throwing for the big plots and the poorer villagers for the small ones. Grazing lands are divided in the same way, but not the house and homestead. The Lamas are not bound to labour for the Maharaja, and they pay no dues of any kind, no matter how much land may be cultivated by themselves or their bondsmen.

The State maintains a small force of military police, composed of one havilddr, 3 head constables, and 16 naiks and constables. A jail with accommodation for 24 prisoners has recently been built at Gangtok.

Of the total population, 5 per cent. (9-5 males and 0-3 females) could read and write in 1901. A school is maintained at Gangtok ; in 1903-4 it had 37 pupils on its rolls, and the expense of maintenance was Rs. 2,000.

A civil hospital building has been constructed at Gangtok and a dispensary at Chidarn. In 1903-4 these were attended by 14,000 patients, and 153 operations were performed. In addition to this, 1,500 persons were vaccinated during the year. The medical charges borne by the State were Rs. 4,000.

[Aitchison’s Treaties, vol. i, 3rd Edition (1892); W. T. Blanford, 'Journey through Sikkim; Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xl, part ii, p. 367 (1871); Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, September (1873); Abbe C. H. Desgodins, La Mission du Tibet (Verdun, 1872) ; Sir J. Ware Edgar, Report on a Visit to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier in 1873 (Calcutta, 1874); Col. J. C. Gawler, Sikkim (1873) ; Sir J. D. Hooker, Himalayan Journals (1854); Colman Macaulay, Report of a Mission to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier (Calcutta, 1885) ; Gazetteer of Sikkim (Calcutta, 1894).]