View source for Pakistan History: The Land And Its Early History

=The Land And Its Early History=
Few nations have as rich or complex a history as the Islamic Republic 
of Pakistan. Its destiny has been shaped first by its geography The 
violent collision of continents that formed this land threw up great 
mountains that made this corner of the subcontinent a place apart. The 
sequestered, fertile environment of the Indus Valley nurtured one of the 
world's first great civilizations. Yet the passes that breached the guard- 
ing massifs served as funnels through which invaders both hostile and 
friendly have poured for millennia. These outsiders have been the sec- 
ond great ingredient in Pakistan's destiny. They brought their traditions, 
ideas, and ways of life, all of which have become part of the nation's 
identity. This chapter surveys the nation's physical landscape, its first 
civilizations, and the provinces that today reflect the historical divisions 
that have made Pakistan's past and present so vibrant, dynamic, and 
tumultuous. The chapter also introduces the Aryans, the first of the 
interloping groups that would shape the history and heritage of what 
is today Pakistan. The Aryans' experiences here would give rise to the 
Hindu religion, which continues to be a force with a powerful effect on 
the region today. 

==Geology and Geography== 

Before the continents as we know them came to be, the land that is 
now Pakistan and India were part of Gondwanaland, an ancient super- 
continent. Some 200 million years ago Gondwanaland began to break 
apart, torn by tectonic forces. Over time the supercontinent's rem- 
nants formed landmasses including Africa, South America, Antarctica, 
Australia, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Deccan Plateau, or the 
Indian subcontinent. At the time the Eurasian landmass was separated 
from the disintegrating supercontinent by a long, shallow sea. The 
streams and rivers that drained what we know now as Asia deposited 
sandy runoff into this basin while the calcified remains of sea creatures 
likewise accreted. Over time these deposits became sandstone and 
limestone. After Gondwanaland splintered, the future Deccan Plateau 
moved north, toward Eurasia. As the two landmasses drove toward 
each other, the sandstone and limestone that had carpeted the sea 
floor between them was thrust upward. At least 45 million years ago 
the landmasses met. 

The submarine deposits ultimately became the fold mountains that 
now form a ridge across southern Asia from the Mediterranean to the 
Pacific. The contorted, visible bowing of the sedimentary rocks from 
which the mountains formed bears evidence of the compression caused 
by the slow tectonic collision. The peaks reach their highest point at 
the north end of the subcontinent. These are the Himalayan Mountains. 
Marine fossils found on Mount Everest, the world's highest peak, attest 
to its undersea ancestry. The Himalayas and its offshoots, which flank 
southward on the east and west sides of the subcontinent, have served 
as a natural barrier to both the elements and humanity, separating 
the lands that became Pakistan and India from the rest of Asia. By 11 
million B.C.E. migration of animals from and to the subcontinent had 
ended. 

==Topography== 

To its south, west, north, and northeast, natural barriers of mountain 
and sea have sheltered Pakistan. But to the southeast, the land spills 
out into the Deccan, the vast peninsular homeland of India. The Indus 
River, historically the lifeblood of what would become Pakistan, and its 
tributaries drain the plateau. Though its terrain is varied throughout the 
country, Pakistan can be divided into three basic geographic areas: the 
northern highlands, the Baluchistan Plateau, and the Indus River plain. 
These areas can be further segmented into the Salt Mountains and the 
Potwar Plateau, north of the Indus Plain; the Western Mountain region 
(composed of the mountains in western Baluchistan); and the Upper 
and Lower Indus River Plain (roughly corresponding with the present- 
day provinces of Punjab and Sind, respectively). 

The Arabian Sea forms Pakistan's southern border. Its western border 
is shared with Iran in the south and Afghanistan in the north. Along 
Pakistan's northern border the slim arm of Afghanistan's Wakhan region 
separates Pakistan from Tajikistan. China's territories of Xinjiang and 
Tibet lie on Kashmir's border to the north and east. To Pakistan's east 


==The Indus River==

The Indus River is Pakistan's principal waterway. Known as the 
Sindhu in Sanskrit, the Sinthos in Greek, and the Sindus in Latin, 
it has been integral to Pakistan's culture and history, yet paradoxically 
gave its name to India, Pakistan's neighbor and rival. Its headwaters are 
in the Himalayas in Tibet. It flows northwest through Gilgit-Baltistan 
in Kashmir before turning south and traversing the length of Pakistan, 
its total length between 1,800 and 2,000 miles (2,900-3,200 km). The 
river gave birth to one of the world's first great civilizations, the Indus 
Valley Civilization. The course of the river has changed since ancient 
times as a result, it is believed, of earthquakes and other shifts of the 
land. Today it is damned at Tarbela, at the foothills of the Himalayas 
between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. Shortly after Pakistan became 
independent in 1947, India, which was given the region with the river's 
headwaters by the British, shut the flow of water to the Indus, creat- 
ing a grave crisis that took more than 15 years to resolve 
[[File: Indus valley.PNG ||frame|500px]]
are the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan. The Thar Desert serves as 
a barrier between these Indian lands and Pakistan. Despite the absence 
of any other barriers between these two states, historically they devel- 
oped independently. 
[[File: Topographical map of pakistan.PNG ||frame|500px]]

==The Himalayas==

The Himalayas (meaning "the abode of snow" in Sanskrit) extend in 
a long bow some 1,500 miles (2,400 km) across the north end of the 
subcontinent, from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River 
(which originates in Tibet and ends in the Bay of Bengal) in the east. Four 
major ranges comprise the Himalayas: The Outermost, or Sub-Himalayas, 
are the farthest south. Its low hills, known as the Siwaliks, rise to about 
3,000 feet (914 m). To the north lie the Outer, or Lesser Himalayas, 
whose peaks average 14,000-15,000 feet (4,267-4,572 m). Behind the 
Pir Panjal Range of the Outer Himalayas rise the Central, or Great Snowy 
Himalayas. In the Karakoram Range, permanently snow-covered peaks 
average 20,000 feet (6,096 m) in height and include Mount Everest, the 
world's loftiest peak (29,028 feet; 8,848 m), and in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir, K2, the world's second highest peak (28,251 feet; 8,611 m).
[[File: k2.PNG ||frame|left|500px]]
 
North of Pakistan's border is the Ladakh Range, or Inner Himalayas. 

In Pakistan's northwest is the Hindu Kush (Hindu Killer) Range, 
extending from the high plateau of Pamir, sometimes called the Roof 
of the World, into Afghanistan. Tirich Mir is its highest peak (25,289 
ft.; 7,708 m). 

The Himalayas have had important historical and climatological 
effects on Pakistan and the entire subcontinent. They capture mois- 
ture-laden winds from the Arabian Sea (and to the east, the Bay of 
Bengal) and create rain that irrigates the region. In winter they block 
cold winds from North and Central Asia, keeping the subcontinent's 
climate mild. Spring melt-offs provide water. Historically the Himalayas 
and contiguous ranges have also formed a barrier protecting the region 
from the incursions of outsiders. Several passes along Pakistan's west- 
ern and northern borders provide routes in and out of the nation and 
have been key transit points throughout recorded history. 

==Western Mountains==

In Baluchistan, west of the Indus Plain, three minor ranges run parallel 
south from the Hindu Kush to the Kabul River, their valleys draining 
the Swat, the Panjikora, and the Chitral-Kunar Rivers. 

The Safed Koh Range, which runs east-west, has peaks averag- 
ing about 12,000 feet (3,657 m). The Khyber Pass, the most famous 
of the high-elevation gateways to the subcontinent, cuts through its 
mountains. About 33 miles (53 km) in length, the pass extends from 
Jamrud, some 10 miles (16 km) from Peshawar, Pakistan, to Dakka 
in Afghanistan. South of the range is the Kurram River. The Kurram 
Pass, which goes through Parachinar, Thai, and Kohat, has long been 
another favored route to Afghanistan. To the south, the Waziristan 
Hills lie between the Kurram and Gomal Rivers. The Gomal Pass, 
named for the Gomal River, which feeds into the Indus, has been an 
important trade route between Afghanistan and Pakistan for nomadic 
tribes known as the Powindahs. (Today their entry into Pakistan is 
restricted.) 

South of the Gomal River the Sulaiman Mountains extend for 300 
miles (483 km). The main peak, Takht-i-Sulaiman, is 11,100 feet (3,383 
m). The Bolan Pass is the most noted transit point of these mountains 
and the Bolan their main river. The Pakistan city of Quetta guards the 
northern end of the pass. From here the land descends to the Kirthar 
Hills, low parallel ranges of some 7,000 feet (2,134 m) in elevation. 
They get little monsoon rainfall and are barren. 

West of the Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains the land descends to 
the dry hills of the Baluchistan Plateau, running northeast to southwest 
at an elevation of about 1,000 feet (305 m). The coastal Makran range 
borders the south end of Pakistan's western boundary. 

==The Salt Range and the Potwar Plateau== 

The Salt Range extends from near Jhelum, on the Jhelum River, north- 
west to the Indus River and then south into the districts of Bannu and 
Dera Ismail Khan in the North- West Frontier Province (NWFP). Its 
peaks average 2,200 feet (671 m) in height, though they reach about 
5,000 feet (1,524 m) near Sakesar. In addition to extensive deposits of 
salt, its steep rock faces in the north contain gypsum, coal, and other 
minerals. The Salt Range has also attracted the attention of geologists, 
as it contains one of the world's most complete geological sequences, 
from the Cambrian to the Pleistocene eras. 

The Potwar Plateau extends north of the Salt Range. The elevation 
ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 feet (305-610 m). The landscape is varied, 
shaped by glacial erosion. During the last ice ages glaciers that covered 
Kashmir and much of the northern subcontinent extended over this 
now semiarid region, creating the plateau's hills and hillocks. 
==The Indus Plain== 

South of the Salt Range the vast Indus Plain, drained by the Indus 
River and its tributaries, stretches to the Arabian Sea. The plain is 
composed of fertile alluvial deposits left by the overflow of the rivers. 
Several rivers in addition to the Indus traverse the Himalayan ranges. 
Their enormous flows in the rainy season often flood the surrounding 
plains. The northern part is called the Punjab and gives its name to the 
province that occupies the land. Most of this area is in Pakistan. The 
elevation here ranges from 600 to 1,000 feet (183-305 m). 

The land between two rivers is referred to as a doab. The Indus has 
five major tributaries, and thus Punjab has four doabs. The combined 
waters of these tributaries, before joining the Indus near Mithankot, 
is called the Panjad (five rivers), thus the name of the province. The 
Indus and its five major tributaries join in Sind south of Mithankot. 
Here the land is flat, the river slow and wide, several miles across 
in the wet season. Silt on its banks forms a natural barrier, but at 
times the river has broken through and caused vast flooding, and has 
changed course. Near the coast a delta and flood plain form the mouth 
of the Indus. A coastal strip five to 25 miles (8-40 km) wide contains 
scattered mangrove swamps. Canals have been cut through the area, 
providing access for water traffic and trade. The Thar Desert occupies 
the southeast portion of the Indus Plain, spanning both Pakistan and 
India. 
==Climate== 

Generally arid, Pakistan lies in a warm temperate zone. The year is 
popularly regarded as having three seasons: summer, rainy season, 
and winter. Hot, summery weather lasts from April to September, 
and cold winters stretch from October to March. Monsoon rains 
drench the region from July to September. Within its borders the 
country has four primary climactic regions. The northern and north- 
western mountains have very cold winters with frequent frosts and 
heavy snowfalls. Summers are mild. On the plains to the south, the 
low elevation and absence of sea breezes cause very hot summers. 
During summer days, dry winds called loo blow. In the coastal areas 
to the south the Arabian Sea provides a moderating influence, and 
temperature variations are less extreme. The Baluchistan Plateau has 
a climate similar to that of the northern regions, though warmer in 
both summer and winter. 

==The Provinces== 

Today Pakistan is composed of four provinces, Punjab, Sind, the North- 
west Frontier Province (NWFP), and Baluchistan, and the Federally 
Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), a region between southwest NWFP 
and Afghanistan largely outside of government control. The state of 
Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by both Pakistan and India, and the 
dispute over the territory has been the defining issue dividing the two 
nations and inflaming passions on both sides of the border. The portion 
of Jammu and Kashmir that is administered by the federal government 
of Pakistan is divided into the Federally Administered Northern Areas, 
commonly known as the Northern Areas, and Azad Kashmir. 

==Punjab==

Punjab is the most populous and developed of the four provinces. 
Noted for its arts and crafts, it is considered the cultural capital of 
Pakistan. Covering an area of 97,192 square miles (205,346 sq. km), 
Punjab is primarily a plain, though its north is bisected by the Salt 
Range, composed of the Murree and Kahuta hills on the north side 
and the Pubbi Hills of Gujrat in the south. The Potwar Plateau 
(1,000-2,000 feet; 305-610 m) lies north of the Salt Range, between 
the Jhelum River in the east and the Indus River to the west. It is pri- 
marily an agricultural area and boasts one of the largest canal irrigation 
systems in the world. 

Punjab comprises eight administrative divisions. Its capital, Lahore, 
is linked to most major events and movements in Pakistan's history. 
Situated on the left bank of the river Ravi, it is bristling with monuments 
and buildings of great architectural and historical note. These include 
the Badshahi Mosque, Emperor Jahangir's Mausoleum, and the Shalimar 
Gardens. Islamabad, the nation's capital, lies some 170 miles (275 km) 
north of Lahore. Its twin city, Rawalpindi, is a gateway to the hills and 
mountains of Pakistan's north, which draw hikers, trekkers, and moun- 
tain climbers from around the world. Taxila, another of the province's 
many points of interest, is an ancient city rich in archaeological sites 
and treasures. 

Throughout the province forts, palaces, mosques, and other grand edi- 
fices evidence the importance this region has long enjoyed. One of South 
Asia's earliest existing buildings with enameled tile work, the mausoleum 
of Shah Yusuf Gardezi in Multan, was built here in 1152 C.E. 

A Muslim artistic tradition developed in Punjab early in the Mughal 
period, influenced by Central Asian and Persian artists. The renown of 
[[File: political map of Pakistan.PNG ||frame|500px]]
artists such as Abdur Rahman Chughtai (1899-1975) and miniaturist 
Haji Mohammad Sharif (1889-1978) remains undimmed today, and 
their legacy remains alive in contemporary artists who continue in their 
tradition. 

Carpet making and pottery which have a rich history here, are also 
widely practiced today. The pottery of Multan, where the Muslims first 
established a foothold in the region, was famed for its blue glazed pot- 
tery as early as the 13th century. Woodwork and metalwork in brass, 
iron, and copper add to the province's cultural legacy. 

==Sind==

The life and economy of Sind flows on the current of the river Sindhu, 
or Indus, for which the province is named. Yet despite its aqueous 
spine, this is among the hottest areas of Pakistan. Jaccobabad, in the 
north of the province, is one of the hottest places on earth, with day- 
time temperatures in the summer rising to over 120 degrees F (49°C). 
Comprising three divisions, the province covers 54,198 square miles 
(140,914 sq. km). Sindhi, an ancient language, is spoken by a great 
majority of the population. 

The capital, Karachi, has been the nation's primary seaport since 
the 1700s and is the largest city in Sind. In addition to its position as a 
trading center, Sind is also an industrial powerhouse, producing up to 
half the nation's goods in some manufacturing sectors. Rice, cotton, and 
wheat give the province a strong agricultural base. 

Important archaeological sites are scattered throughout Sind. Just east 
of Karachi, Bhambore marks the site of the seaport of Debal, where the 
first Arab armies came ashore in 711 C.E. and began their conquests in 
the region. Thatta, the former provincial capital, was once a center of 
learning and still contains notable historical architecture. About 60 miles 
(98 km) east of Karachi, it is also the site of the famed Makli Tombs, a 
sprawling necropolis built between the 15th and 17th centuries. 

The town of Sehwan predates the Islamic era and includes the ruins 
of Kafir-Qila, a fort reputedly built by Alexander the Great during his 
invasion of the area in the fourth century B.C.E. It is also the site of pil- 
grimages by Shia who come to visit the tomb of the 12th-century mystic 
poet, scholar, and saint Shaikh Usman Marvandvi. 

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Hyderabad was the capital of Sind, 
and today it is noted for colorful handicrafts including glass, lacquered 
furniture, and hand-loomed cloth, as well as several historic forts, 
buildings, and monuments. Crafts remain important throughout the 
province, which is noted for ajrak — local craftwork that includes pot- 
tery, carpets, leatherwork, and silk. Sind is also noted for its textiles 
in the form of blankets, gold and silver embroidery, and cotton cloth 
(soosi). As befitting the first outpost of Islam on the subcontinent, 
poetry has long been a part of Sind's cultural heritage. 

==North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)== 

The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) boasts the largest concen- 
tration of high peaks in the world. Containing the restless tribal areas 
and situated astride key mountain passes, including the Khyber Pass, 
NWFP has long been an untamed and strategic corner of the region. 
Most of the invaders who swept into the area that is now Pakistan — 
including Alexander the Great, Timur, Emperor Babur, and Mahmud of 
Ghazni — passed this way on their journeys of conquest. 

The province in its present configuration, covering 29,808 square 
miles (74,521 sq. km), was created in 1901 and divided into "tribal" 
and "settled" areas. The tribal areas are administered by the federal 
government, while the settled areas are ruled by the fairly autonomous 
provincial assembly, as are all the provinces. The province has five 
administrative divisions: Peshawar, Kohat, Hazura, Dera Ismail Khan, 
and Malakand. Each of these is divided into two or more districts. The 
provincial capital is Peshawar. This province was also the home of the 
Gandhara Civilization, noted for its art, which blended Greco-Roman 
and local traditions, often harnessed to glorify Buddha and the religion 
he brought to this region. The valley of Udiyana, in the Swat River val- 
ley, was important during the Buddhist era of this region. 

==Baluchistan==

The largest of Pakistan's four provinces (131,051 sq. miles; 347,190 
sq. km), Baluchistan is a generally inhospitable land, and its lack of 
resources left it relatively undisturbed by regional powers for most of 
its history. Its geography encompasses mountains, coastal plains, and 
rocky deserts on its high plateau. In the south, the Makran Range sepa- 
rates the coastal plain from the interior, a region of highland basins and 
deserts. 

Southeast Baluchistan is cut by narrow river valleys. With little room 
for alluvial deposits to settle, there is little agriculture. Archaeological 
research in the areas of Mehrgarh, Nausharo, and Pirak in the Kachi 
Plain indicates that settlements existed from the Neolithic period 
through the Iron Age, beginning in the early seventh millennium B.C.E. 
Dams were common to many settlements. The final settlement phase of 
this culture lasted until about 2600 B.C.E. , the period when the Indus 
Valley Civilization of the river plains to the east of Mehrgarh was begin- 
ning to develop. Evidence from this time period points to mass produc- 
tion of pottery and increasing trade and exchange. Near the middle of 
the third millennium B.C.E., traces of human habitation end. 

In historic times the area was first claimed by the Persian Empire, 
when it was called Maka. Alexander the Great brought it under nomi- 
nal Greek rule in the fourth century B.C.E. The province takes its name 
from the Baluchs, the last of the major ethnic groups to settle in what is 
now Pakistan. The Baluchis, who may have originated from the Caspian 
Sea area, arrived around 1000 C.E., displacing the Meds of Maran and 
other tribes. The great Persian poet Firdausi (Abdul Kasim Mansur; 
932-1021) mentioned the Baluchs and their valor in his epic poem 
Shah Namah (The Book of Kings), along with the warlike Kuch. 

Baluchistan became a full-fledged province only in 1969. It has 
six administrative divisions: Quetta, Sibi, Kalat, Makran, Loralai, and 
Nasirabad. Each of these is composed of two or more districts. The 
capital of Baluchistan is Quetta, located by the Bolan Pass. 

Three main languages are spoken: Baluchi, Pashto, and Brauhvi. 
Urdu, Pakistan's national language, is understood as well. The Baluchi, 
the language of the Baluchs, has Indo-Iranian roots. The strong 
national identity of the Baluchis — their tribes extend into Iran and 
Afghanistan — along with the historic lack of government attention and 
services, has made them resistant to being incorporated into the fabric 
of Pakistan. The region has been marked by periodic insurrections that 
continued into the 21st century. 

Though only about 1.2 million of its 85 million acres is under culti- 
vation, the province's economy is based on agriculture. The production 
of fruit in Baluchistan gives the province the sobriquet Fruit Garden of 
Pakistan. With little rainfall in the region, irrigation depends mostly 
on wells, karezes (underground water conduits), and springs. Canals 
irrigate about 1,000 square miles (2,590 sq. km). Livestock, primarily 
sheep and goats, are also a mainstay of the agricultural sector. In the 
Arabian Sea to the south, a fishing industry flourishes. 

Though rich in minerals including iron ore and copper, Baluchistan 
has lagged in development of these resources. Facilities for the textile, 
pharmaceutical, and gas industries have recently been constructed, 
and the government has established economic incentives to encourage 
investment in the province. 
==Languages== 

The language of the Indus Valley Civilization is unknown. The Dardic 
language came with the first wave of Aryans around 1800-1500 B.C.E. 
Once established, the upper classes spoke Sanskrit (an Indo-Aryan 
language), while the masses (composed of indigenous populations) 
spoke what is called North-Western Prakrit, or the language of 
Gandhara. This was possibly an amalgam of local pre-Indo-European, 
Indo-Aryan, Dardic, and East Iranian speech. Today, reflecting its 
polyglot past and the historic isolation of many of its peoples, 
Pakistanis speak a variety of languages. Urdu is the national language, 
and English is the official language, but other common tongues are 
Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, and Baluchi. Most of the myriad languages 
are thought to be offshoots of the Sanskrit spoken by the Aryans three 
millennia ago. 
==Prehistoric Pakistan== 

Among the earliest fossils found in Pakistan are those of several 
ape species, including Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus, and the larger 
Gigantophithecus dating to the Miocene period, some 9 million years 
ago, unearthed on the Potwar Plateau. The region was also habitat for 
species of pigs, giraffes, antelopes, and other grazing animals. Boars the 
size of contemporary hippopotamuses, sheep larger that horses, and 
mastadons also roamed the landscape. In wet areas, crocodiles, turtles, 
and anthrocheres, a hippolike creature, flourished. Many of these 
creatures became extinct between 5 million and 1.5 million years ago, 
though humanoid apes thrived. But among the apelike creatures that 
thrived here, only Homo sapiens would survive the ice ages. Finding 
shelter in caves, they would learn to control fire and make tools, and 
they left records of their passage and way of life in cave paintings found 
in the central subcontinent. 

==Early Humans==

In the Rawalpindi district, southwest of Islamabad, and the city of 
Rawalpindi near the Soan River, evidence of habitation by pre-Stone 
Age humans who lived between 3 million and 500,000 years ago 
has been found. They were likely hunter-gatherers whose pebble 
tools are the only trace of their existence. Extensive evidence of 
Stone Age, or Paleolithic, cultures has also been found. The most 
primitive tools found, dating to the early Stone Age, are eoliths, 
large stone-flake tools labeled the "pre-Soan" type. Artifacts of the 
so-called Soan Culture have been found on the Potwar Plateau, in the 
Rawalpindi district, the Jhelum River, and tributaries of the Chenab 
River. Middle Stone Age sites, dating to 300,000 to 150,000 years 
ago, have been found near Nomad Lake. By this time, toolmaking 
had improved. Flat chips called flakes were used as spearheads and 
knives. During Late Soan Culture, the use of wooden traps to catch 
fish and small game may have been mastered. In the Sanghao Valley 
near Mardan, stone tools dating to 70,000 years ago have been found. 
The transition from Lower to Upper Paleolithic cultures makes one 
of the most vital evolutions of mankind, and the remnants of the 
Soan Culture show dramatic advances in the manufacture of bone 
and stone tools. 

About 10,000 years ago the global climate turned more temperate, 
and the last ice age ended. Receding glaciers were replaced by herds of 
grazing animals and the humans who hunted them. Ultimately some 
of these grazing animals were domesticated. Agriculture, the Neolithic 
revolution, may have initially developed in order to feed these animals, 
freeing humans from the need to follow migrating herds and allowing 
the establishment of permanent settlements. 

==Roots of Civilization==

The settlement and agricultural exploitation of the region took root 
about 6500-5000 B.C.E. Agriculture came from the west; the first farm- 
ing villages in the subcontinent appeared in areas of Baluchistan closest 
to Iran and Afghanistan. Neolithic farming and pastoral communities 
dotted the plains and western highland regions of Baluchistan and 
Afghanistan. The oldest Neolithic site in the subcontinent, found in 
1979, is at Mehrgarh in Dhadar District, six miles south of the Bolan 
Pass, a key route into the region of present-day Pakistan. It dates 
to about 6500 B.C.E. or earlier. The remains of houses of dried mud 
bricks and tools of stone and flint have been identified. Inhabitants 
cultivated barley, oats, and wheat, harvesting them with sickles with 
stone blades. They wove baskets and kept herds of cattle and flocks of 
sheep. Beads, shells, and stones were used to make ornamental items. 
Objects found include necklaces and bracelets made from beads of 
turquoise, marble, lapus lazuli, shell, and steatite, or soapstone. The 
use of stones and shells not native to the area evidence trade with 
peoples from the Arabian Sea to Afghanistan. A copper bead found in 
a grave dating to 5000 B.C.E. is one of the first metal objects found in 
the region. 

Numerous Neolithic sites dating to 5000 B.C.E. and later have been 
found throughout Pakistan. Among the artifacts discovered are highly 
polished stone tools, and pottery with beautiful paintings of animals: 
deer, mountain goats, fox, and bison. This pottery, in its style and deco- 
ration, likewise shows influences from as far as Iraq. Boxes carved from 
soft stone and figurines believed to be deities, particularly the Mother 
Goddesses, have also been found. From here agriculture spread up the 
Indus Valley. Annual floods of the Indus made the ground rich and pli- 
ant enough to obviate the need for plows. 

Sometime around 4000 B.C.E. a new ethnic group appeared in the 
Indus region, the Dravidians. Though thought to have come from the 
Middle East, their origins are unknown. Their appearance — not fair 
skinned, high nosed, or flat nosed — indicates they were not related to 
central Asians or Mongolians. Early urban centers began to appear in 
the area about this time. One such community, Rehman Dheri, a few 
miles north of Dera Ismail Khan in NWFP, had an estimated population 
of 10,000 to 15,000. Inscriptions found on pottery at the site indicate 
script was developing. Remnants of such settlements have been found 
from Sahiwal and Rupar in East Punjab to Karachi and Baluchistan to 
the west. 

The Dravidians built planned towns with two-story buildings, 
underground drains, public water supplies and baths, and large grain 
storehouses. More than three dozen sites have been identified. After 
4000 B.C.E. bronze, a combination of copper and tin, became common 
in present-day Pakistan, though stone tools remained the norm in 
Baluchistan. 

By 3000 B.C.E. hundreds of farming communities were established 
along the Indus and its tributaries. Several towns were fortified. The 
wheel was in wide use, both for throwing clay on potter's wheels and 
on carts pulled by draught animals. Toy carts have been found in the 
ruins of Kot Diji and in surrounding areas of the Kot Diji culture. 
Examinations of the pottery found at various sites have led to specu- 
lation that much of the culture originated in farming settlements in 
Baluchistan and spread east. 
==The Indus Valley Civilization==
Sometime around 2600 B.C.E. at least two cities were destroyed by fire. 
In both cases, a new city was built atop the ashes of the old. But these 
new metropolises were markedly different from what they replaced. 
Both were built according to a uniform plan. Two large sites, Mohenjo- 
Daro (Mound of the Dead), near Larkana in Sind, and Harappa, near 
Sahiwal in the Punjab, are the most notable. 

Mohenjo-Daro's edifices were constructed of durable burned-mud 
brick. Built around a central citadel, wide thoroughfares divided the 
municipal district into large blocks. Large temple-like structures 
include a pillared public bath measuring more than 100 feet by 180 
feet. In residential areas, blocks were smaller and bisected by nar- 
rower lanes. Houses ranged from small cottages to roomy two- and 
three-story dwellings, replete with indoor plumbing. A complex 
sewer system, unmatched until the Roman Empire, served the city's 
sanitation needs. 

Since these two cities were discovered in the 1920s, the remnants of 
many more built the same way have been uncovered. All have straight 
north-south and east-west streets. An administrative area was built on 
a vast platform protected by thick-walled fortifications overseen by 
watchtowers. Public buildings, granaries, and auditoriums also appear 
to have been common to all. 
[[File: mohanjodaro.PNG ||frame|left|500px]]


The Harappans were prosperous agricultural traders known through- 
out the ancient world. They traded with Mesopotamia and with Arabian 
Gulf communities. Internal trade likely consisted of cotton, lumber, grain, 
livestock, and other comestibles. A highly standardized system of weights 
controlled trade. The economic growth accompanying urban expansion 
brought increasing social stratification and distinction. The appearance of 
elaborate ornaments of gold, silver, and ivory; terra-cotta figurines; and 
sculpture marked this evolution. They also produced finely painted pot- 
tery and carved seals similar to those found in Sumer. The seals were often 
engraved with animals, the most common being a unicorn inscribed with 
pictographic symbols. The symbology has yet to be deciphered. 

Though peaceful, they also made weapons of bronze and stone. They 
worshipped many gods and goddesses, most prominently one similar 
to the later Hindu god Shiva. The dead were buried in wooden coffins 
with pottery vessels and simple ornaments. No elaborate or valuable 
items of gold, silver, or precious stones were interred with them. 

The unity of style and symbology linked the region culturally but 
individual areas developed distinct, identifiable styles. At the end of 
the era these regional differences hardened, signifying independence as 
well as isolation, limiting the opportunities for advancement that had 
accompanied the earlier interaction. 

At its height, the Indus Valley Civilization incorporated an area 
larger than Mesopotamia or Upper Egypt, stretching almost 700 miles 
(684 miles; 1100 km) north to south, from the foothills of the Siwalik 
Mountains to the Tapti River, and the same distance east to west, from 
Quetta in Baluchistan to Bikaner in Rajasthan, India, and Alamgirpur in 
the Upper Ganga-Jamuna doab. 
[[File: seals engraved with animals.PNG ||frame|500px]]

==Decline== 
After 1900-1800 b.c.e. the Indus Valley Civilization began to decline. 
Changes in river patterns wrought by earthquakes are thought to have 
contributed to the downfall of Harappan culture. While the Indus River 
is regarded as the wellspring for the region's earliest true civilization, at 
the time the region's greatest river was the Sarasvati, often identified in 
later Aryan accounts as the Ghaggar-Hakra. The Sarasvati River dried 
up and disappeared about 1900 B.C.E. , disrupting agriculture and the 
economy. The Indus changed course as well, causing destructive floods. 
The demise of the Indus Valley Civilization was mirrored in southeast 
Baluchistan, where settlements and irrigation systems were abandoned. 
Yet the area remained essentially habitable and hospitable, and the rea- 
sons for the depopulation are unknown. By about 1700 B.C.E. the Indus 
Valley Civilization had fragmented into smaller regional cultures called 
Late or Post-Harappan cultures. 
[[File: archeology site.PNG ||frame|500px]]
==The Aryans== 

A few hundred years after the urban centers of the Harappan culture 
had been abandoned, a people who called themselves the Aryans, or 
"noble ones" in Sanskrit, belonging to a large group of seminomadic 
tribes from Central Asia, migrated into the region. Before arriving on the 
subcontinent the larger group called Proto-Indo-Europeans had divided 
into three branches. One went west to Europe, the Iranian Aryans to 
Iran, and the third, the Indo-Aryans, to the subcontinent. Expert horse- 
men, aggressive fighters, and armed with iron weapons, the Aryans met 
little resistance. They arrived in the subcontinent in at least two major 
resettlements and ongoing, smaller migrations, the first in about 1,500 
B.C.E. Their language, Dardic, or Old Indo-Aryan, composed of several 
dialects, was restricted to the Pamir mountain region at the time. The 
second wave came about six centuries later. In its aftermath their lan- 
guage, now evolved into Indie, became dominant in the Pakistan area. 
The Aryan language also became the root of Sanskrit, Pahlavi, Greek, 
Latin, and ancient forms of Teutonic and Slavic languages. By this time 
the Aryans had supplanted the Indus Valley Civilization. They may 
have driven the Dravidians south into what is now India. 

The Aryans had chariots as well as weapons superior to those of 
indigenous forces. Aryans called those they conquered dasyus, meaning 
"inferior people born to serve." As Aryan society became more strati- 
fied, social laws evolved into a caste system of four classes. The highest 
were the Brahmans, priests who provided the link between men and 
god. Kshatriyas, the second caste, were warriors, commanders, lead- 
ers, and kings. The Vaishya caste consisted of artists, artisans, farm- 
ers, traders, and, later, minor officials. And the lowest caste, Shudras, 
were menial workers. Rule over Aryan tribes was primarily hereditary, 
though citizens had a voice through some elections. The king was 
crowned by Brahmans. The castes first developed as an open system, 
allowing Kshatriyas and Vaishyas to move up as their capabilities 
allowed. But over time the system became fixed. 
==The Epics== 

Knowledge of the Aryans primarily comes from their collection of 
sacred hymns, called the Vedas, meaning sacred knowledge. The Vedas 
include the Rig- Veda Samhita, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva- 
Veda. The Rig- Veda Samhita (Samhita means collection) is the source 
of all Vedic lore and religion. The Vedic pantheon contains 33 gods 
divided into groups of 11 in three categories: atmospheric (Indra), ter- 
restrial (Agni), and celestial (Surya or Vishnu). Reference to astronomi- 
cal phenomena leads scholars to believe the Vedas refer to incidents as 
early as 4500 b.c.e. 

Two epic poems recount the heroic deeds of the early Aryans, and 
these traditions had a large influence on Hindu life and outlook. One, 
the Ramayana, was reputedly composed by Valmiki, a Hindu sage, 
although the date of its creation is unknown; the version that survives 
today is thought to date from between 500 and 100 B.C.E. The other 
epic, the Mahabharata, is a longer, episodic poem. The major portion 
of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita, a series of moral lectures from 
Lord Krishna to Arjuna, archer-prince, before going into battle. 

Other sacred writings include the Brahmanas, commentaries on the 
Vedas that were written ca. 700-500 B.C.E.; and the Upanishads, con- 
sidered among the greatest religious works in the world. These latter 
writings represent the height of Hindu culture. 

The language of the religious texts, Sanskrit, was sacred and per- 
sonified by a goddess. About 400 B.C.E. a grammarian, Panini, devel- 
oped some 4,000 rules for the language. Later the scholars Ktayayana 
(ca. 250 B.C.E.) and Patanjali (ca. 150 B.C.E.) wrote commentaries on 
Panini's work, adding to the codification of the rules of Sanskrit. 

The religion was polytheistic, with gods representing the sky, sun, 
moon, thunder, rain, earth, and rivers. Indra, god of war, sacker of cit- 
ies, and bringer of rain, was the earliest of them and was originally the 
king of the deities. But over centuries a Hindu trinity emerged: Brahma, 
the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Shiva ulti- 
mately evolved into both creator and destroyer. Vishnu was the savior 
of mankind. 

==Aryan Society==

The basic Aryan political unit was the grama, or village, and its leader 
was the gramani. Ajana was a larger area, and a vis was likely a subdi- 
vision of a jana. Rashtra was the state and was ruled by a raja, or king, 
who was also called gopa, or protector. Samrat was the supreme ruler. 

Early Vedic society was nomadic and cattle herding the chief occupa- 
tion. There were no coins or money at the time, and cows served as 
their currency. Families were patrilineal, with wealth passed from father 
to eldest son. The Aryan diet consisted primarily of grain and cakes, 
milk and milk products, and fruits and vegetables. Horse meat was 
consumed, but cows were seldom eaten due to their value, and their 
use as food declined over time. 

Agriculture grew in importance and became the dominant economic 
activity as Aryan culture became more sedentary. Concurrently several 
small kingdoms emerged, often at war with one another. Some Vedic 
literature refers to 16 great kingdoms, or mahajanapadas. During this 
time two leadership groups emerged, the Brahmans and Kshatriyas. The 
former developed elaborate sacrifices and specialization, and proper 
enunciation of sacred verses became essential for divine intervention 
in granting wealth and victory in war. Over time the alliance between 
these two groups grew stronger. 

From about 1500 to 1000 B.C.E. the area of present-day Pakistan 
where the Aryans ruled remained independent of the rest of what is 
now India. Once the Aryans migrated east to the Gangetic Plains, the 
area that is now Pakistan reverted to its insular existence. Little is 
known about the events that occurred in the region between 1000 and 
500 B.C.E.