This article has been extracted from THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908. OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS.

Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value.

This article is an extract from PANJAB CASTES SIR DENZIL CHARLES JELF IBBETSON, K.C. S.I. Being a reprint of the chapter on The Races, Castes and Tribes of the People in the Report on the Census of the Panjab published in 1883 by the late Sir Denzil Ibbetson, KCSI Lahore: Printed by the Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab, 1916. Indpaedia is an archive. It neither agrees nor disagrees with the contents of this article. Secondly, this has been scanned from a book. You can help by sending the corrected version to the Facebook page, Indpaedia.com. All information used will be duly acknowledged.

You can update or correct this article, and/ or send the names/ dignified photographs/ biographical details of any of the finalists, related to their lives before, during or after this contest, to the Facebook page, Indpaedia.com. All information used will be duly acknowledged.

This article is an extract from PANJAB CASTES SIR DENZIL CHARLES JELF IBBETSON, K.C. S.I. Being a reprint of the chapter on The Races, Castes and Tribes of the People in the Report on the Census of the Panjab published in 1883 by the late Sir Denzil Ibbetson, KCSI Lahore : Printed by the Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab, 1916 [edition]. Indpaedia is an archive. It neither agrees nor disagrees with the contents of this article.

You can update or correct this page, and/ or send photographs to the Facebook page, Indpaedia.com. All information used will be duly acknowledged.

Sources include

Aswn's list of 'Tamil Heroines'

This article has been extracted from THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908 OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS Things have changed enormously since 1908. Many places that were in India in 1908 are now in Pakistan and Bangladesh.

THE LOVES OF KRISHNA IN INDIAN PAINTING AND POETRY By William George ARCHER (1907-79) The Macmillan Company 1957.

Indpaedia is an archive. It neither agrees nor disagrees with the contents of this article. The article has been scanned from a very old book. If you note scanning errors, please correct them or report them to Indpaedia's Facebook page.

This article is an extract from OMENS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF SOUTHERN INDIA By Edgar Thurston, C.I.E. Sometime superintendent of the Madras Government Museum and of the Ethnographic Survey of the Madras Presidency T. Fisher Unwin London: Adelphi Terrace Leipsic: Inselstrasse 20 1912

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The article has been scanned from a very old book. If you note scanning errors, please correct them or report them to Indpaedia's Facebook page.

This article is an extract from THE POPULAR RELIGION AND FOLK-LORE OF NORTHERN INDIA BY W. CROOKE, B.A. BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE WESTMINSTER ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W. 1896 Indpaedia is an archive. It neither agrees nor disagrees with the contents of this colonial article.

This article is an extract from Chronicle of Fernao Nuniz A Portuguese merchant or traveller at Vijayanagar Written, Probably, A.D. 1535 — 37 Published in translation by Mr. Donald Ferguson in INDIAN ANTIQUARY, around 1920 Indpaedia is an archive. It neither agrees nor disagrees with the contents of this article.

This article is an excerpt from HINDU GODS AND HEROES STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF THE RELIGION OF INDIA BY LIONEL D. BARNETT, M.A., Litt The Wisdom of the East Series Edited by L. CRANMER-BYNG Dr. S. A. KAPADIA 1922 Indpaedia is an archive. It neither agrees nor disagrees with the contents of this article.

This article is an excerpt from Castes and Tribes of Southern India By Edgar Thurston, C.I.E., Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger, Société d’Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa,Romana di Anthropologia Assisted by K. Rangachari, M.A., of the Madras Government Museum. Government Press, Madras 1909.

This article is an excerpt from A HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY By SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA First Edition: Cambridge, 1922.

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This article has been extracted from THE<span />

 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908. OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS.<o:p></o:p>

Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts.Many units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value. <a href="https://archive.org/details/imperialgazettee015643mbp" rel="nofollow">The Imperial Gazetteer Of India Vol XXI</a>" THE <o:p></o:p>

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IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA <o:p></o:p>

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VOL. XXI <o:p></o:p>

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PUSHKAR TO SALWEEN <o:p></o:p>

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NEW EDITION <o:p></o:p>

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PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY'S _S*RE.TARY OP STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL <o:p></o:p>

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OXFORD <o:p></o:p>

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AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1908 <o:p></o:p>

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HENRY FROWDE, M.A. <o:p></o:p>

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PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OP OXFORD <o:p></o:p>

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LONDON, EDINBURGH NEW YORK AND TORONTO <o:p></o:p>

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INTRODUCTORY NOTES <o:p></o:p>

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NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION <o:p></o:p>

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Vowel-Sounds <o:p></o:p>

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a has the sound of a in ' woman/ a has the sound of a in ' father ' e has the vowel-sound in c grey.' i has the sound of i m ' pin ' I has the sound of / in ' police.' o has the sound of o in ' bone,' u has the sound of n in * bull.' u has the sound of u in ' flute,' ai has the vowel-sound in ' mine.' au has the vowel-sound m ' house/ <o:p></o:p>

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It should be stated that no attempt has been made to distinguish between the long and short sounds of e and o in the Dravidian languages, which possess the vowel-sounds in ' bet ' and ' hot ' in addition to those giveti^bove Nor has it been thought necessary to mark vowels as long m cases where mistakes in pronunciation were not likely to be made, <o:p></o:p>

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Consonants <o:p></o:p>

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Most Indian languages have different Forms for a number of con- sonants, such as d) t, r>&c., marked m scientific works by the use of dots or italics. As the European ear distinguishes these with difficulty in oidinary pronunciation, it has been considered undesir- able to embarrass the reader with them ; and only two notes are required. In the first place, the Arabic k, a strong guttural, has been represented by k instead of ^, which is often used. Secondly, it should be remarked that aspirated consonants are common ; and, m particular, dh and th (except in Burma) never have the sound of th in 'this' or 'thin,' but should be pronounced as ia ' woodhouse' and 'boathook 5 <o:p></o:p>

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A 2 <o:p></o:p>

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iv INTRODUCTORY NOTES <o:p></o:p>

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Burmese Words <o:p></o:p>

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Burmese and some of the languages on the frontier of China have the following special sounds : <o:p></o:p>

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aw has the vowel-sound in ' law.' o and u are pronounced as in German. gy is pronounced almost like/ in * jewel ' ky is pronounced almost like ch in ' church. 7 th is pronounced in some cases as in l this,' in some cases as in <o:p></o:p>

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i thin.' <o:p></o:p>

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w after a consonant has the force of uw. Thus, ywa and pwe are disyllables, pronounced as if written yitwa and <o:p></o:p>

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It should also be noted that, whereas in Indian words the accent or stress is distributed almost equally on each syllable, in Burmese there is a tendency to throw special stress on the last syllable <o:p></o:p>

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General <o:p></o:p>

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The names of some places e.g. Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow, Cawnpore have obtained a popular fixity of spelling, while special forms have been officially prescribed for others Names of persons are often spelt and pronounced differently in different parts of India ; but the variations have been made as few as possible by assimilating forms almost alike, especially where a particular spelling has been generally adopted in English books <o:p></o:p>

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NOTES ON MONEY, PRICES, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES <o:p></o:p>

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As the currency of India is based upon the rupee, all statements with regard to money throughout the Gazetteer have necessarily been expressed in rupees, nor has it been found possible to add generally a conversion into sterling. Down to about 1873 the gold value of the rupee (containing 165 grains of pure silver) was approximately equal to zs., or one-tenth of a , and for that period it is easy to convert rupees into sterling by striking off the final cipher (Rs. 1,000 = 100). But after 1873, owing to the depreciation of silver as compared with gold throughout the world, there came a serious and progressive fall in the exchange, until at one time the gold value of the rupee dropped as low as is In order to provide a remedy for the heavy loss caused to the Government of India in respect of its gold payments to be made in England, and also to relieve foreign trade and finance from the inconvenience due to constant and unforeseen fluctuations in exchange, it was resolved in 1893 to close the mints to the free coinage of silver, and thus force up the value of the rupee by restricting the circulation. The intention was to laise <o:p></o:p>

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INTR OD UCTOR Y NO TES v <o:p></o:p>

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the exchange value of the rupee to is 4^, and then introduce a gold standard (though not necessanly a gold cuirency) at the rate of Rs. 15 = i. This policy has been completely successful. From 1899 on- wards the value of the rupee has been maintained, with insignificant fluctuations, at the proposed late of i,?. 4^. ; and consequently since that date three rupees have been equivalent to two lupees befoie 1873 For the intermediate period, between 1873 and 1899, it is manifestly impossible to adopt any fixed sterling value for a constantly changing rupee. But since 1899, if it is desired to convert rupees into sterling, not only must the final cipher be stiuck off (as befoie 1873), DI U also one-third must be subtracted from the result. Thus Rs. 1,000 = 100 -J = (about) 67. <o:p></o:p>

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Another matter in connexion with the expression of money state- ments in terms of rupees requires to be explained. The method of numerical notation in India differs from that which pievails through- out Europe. Large numbers are not punctuated in hundieds of thou- sands and millions, but in lakhs and crores. A lakh is one hunared thousand (written out as 1,00,000), and a crore is one hunared lakhs or ten millions (written out as 1,00,00,000), Consequently, accord- ing to the exchange value of the rupee, a lakh of rupees (Rs 1,00,000) may be read as the equivalent of 10,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) 6,667 after 1899 ; while a crore of rupees (Rs. 1,00,00,000) may similarly be read as the equivalent of 1,000,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) 666,667 after 1899. <o:p></o:p>

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Finally, it should be mentioned that the rupee is divided into 1 6 annas, a fraction commonly used for many purposes by both natives and Europeans. The anna was formerly reckoned as i^d. ; it may now be considered as exactly corresponding to id The anna is again subdivided into 12 pies. <o:p></o:p>

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The various systems of weights used in India combine uniformity of scale with immense vanations in the weight of units. The scale used generally throughout Northern India, and less commonly in Madras and Bombay, may be thus expiessed : one maund = 40 seers ; one seer = 16 chittaks or 80 tolas. The actual weight of a seer varies gieatly from District to District, and even from village to village., but in the standard system the tola is 180 grains Troy (the exact weight of the rupee), and the seei thus weighs 2-057 lb., and the maund 82-28 lb. This standaid is used in official leports and throughout the Gazetteer. <o:p></o:p>

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For calculating retail prices, the universal custom in India is to express them in tenns of seers to the rupee. Thus, when prices change, what varies is not the amount of money to be paid for the <o:p></o:p>

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VI <o:p></o:p>

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vi INTR OD UCTOR Y NO TES <o:p></o:p>

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same quantity, but the quantity to be obtained for the same amount of money. In other words, prices in India are quantity prices, not money prices, When the figure of quantity goes up, this of course means that the price has gone down, which is at first sight perplexing to an English reader. It may, however, be mentioned that quantity prices are not altogether unknown in England, especially at small shops, where pennyworths of many groceries can be bought. Eggs, likewise, are commonly sold at a varying number for the shilling If it'be desired to convert quantity prices from Indian into English denominations without having recourse to money piices (which would often be misleading), the following scale may be adopted based upon the assumptions that a seer is exactly 2 Ib , and that the value of the rupee remains constant at i s. 4^. . i seer per rupee = (about) 3 Ib. for 2s. ; 2 seers per rupee = (about) 6 Ib. for 2S ; and so on. <o:p></o:p>

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The name of the unit for square measurement in India generall} is the bigha, which varies greatly m different parts of the country But areas ha\e always been expressed throughout the Gazetteer either in square miles or m acres. <o:p></o:p>

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MAP <o:p></o:p>

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RAJPUIANA to face p. 154 <o:p></o:p>

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IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA <o:p></o:p>

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VOLUME XXI <o:p></o:p>

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Pushkar. Town, lake, and place of pilgrimage in Ajmer District, Rajputana, situated in 26 29' N and 74 33' E ; 2,389 feet above sea-level. Population (1901), 3,831, neaily all Hindus, Pushkar is said commonly (but erroneously) to be the only town in India that contains a temple dedicated to Brahma, who here performed the sacri- fice known as yaj net, \\hereby the lake of Pushkar became so holy that the greatest sinner, by bathing in it, earns the delights of Paradise. The town contains five principal temples, dedicated to Brahma, Savitri, Badn Narayan, Varha, and Siva Atmateswara ; but they are of modern construction, as the earlier buildings suffered severely under Aurangzeb, Bathing ghats line the lake, and many of the princely families of Raj- putana have houses round the margin, No living thing may be put to death within the limits of the town, A great fair is held in October and November, attended by about 100,000 pilgrims, who bathe in the sacred lake. At this time there is a large tiade in horses, camels, bullocks, and miscellaneous merchandise. <o:p></o:p>

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Pushpagiri. Village and hill on the Madras-Mysore boidei. See <o:p></o:p>

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SUBRAHMANYA, <o:p></o:p>

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Puttur Subdivision. Subdivision of South Kanaia Distuct, Madras, consisting of the UPPINANGADI and KASARAGOD taluks <o:p></o:p>

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Puttur T&hsll.ZamtJidan tahsll in North Arcot District, Madras, consisting of the northern half of the KARVETNAGAR samindan. Area, 542 square miles ; population m 1901, 170,235, compared with 155,546 in 1891 It contains 340 villages, the head-quarters being PUTTUR. <o:p></o:p>

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Puttur Village. Head-quarters of the Uppmangadi subdivision and taluk of South Kanara Distnct, Madras, situated in 12 46' N. and 75 12' E Population (1901), 3,999 The surrounding country belonged to Coorg, and after the Coorg rebellion of 1837 troops were stationed here till 1860. <o:p></o:p>

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Pyapalli. Town in the Pattikonda taluk of Kurnool District, Madras, situated in 15 14' N, and 77 44' E,, at the foot of a granite hill, on the trunk road from Bangalore and Gooty to Hyderabad, <o:p></o:p>

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2 PYAPALLI <o:p></o:p>

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This is the highest town in the District, being about 1,750 feet above sea-level, and is probably the healthiest station. Population (1901), 3,666. It is the head-quai ters of a deputy-tato/^?-. There is a good travellers' bungalow situated in a fine tope planted by Mr, Robertson, a former Collector. The representatives of the ancient pohgars who built the town and fort still reside here, and draw pensions from Government. <o:p></o:p>

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Pyapon. District. A sea-board delta District in the Irrawaddy Division of Lower Burma, lying along the Gulf of Martaban, between 15 40' and 16 41' N. and 95 6' and 96 6' E., with an area of 2,137 square miles. In shape it is a truncated triangle, the sides being the Irrawaddy on the west and the To or China Bakir river on the east, while the base is formed by the sea-coast, which has a general south- west to north-east direction. It is bounded on the east by Hantha- waddy District , on the west b> Myaungmya ; and on the north by Ma-ubin. The entire area consists of a vast plain, intersected by tidal creeks and waterways. With the exception of some aspects very sma11 areas caue(i kondans, the whole of this level is subject to inundation at high spring-tides, and a good deal is submerged throughout the monsoon period The kondans are narrow strips of land, about 4 to 10 feet above the level of the plain, on which the soil is dry and sandy. They are supposed to be the remnants of old sea-beaches. The rivers are all tidal, and form the southeastern portion of the netv\ork of waters by which the Irra- waddy finds its way into the Gulf of Martaban. That river, running bouthwaids to the sea, bounds the District on the west, except in one place where Myaungmya District extends east of the stream. It is naugable by river craft at all seasons of the year. The To river (or China Bakir) takes off from the Irrawaddy in Ma-ubin District, and runs in a south-easterly direction, separating Pyapon from Hantha- waddy. Four miles below Dedaye it spreads into a secondary delta, its two western branches being called the Donyan and Thandi nveis, both wide but of little importance. Into the To river itself (the eastern branch), at the extreme south-east cornei of the District, flows the Thakutpm or Bassein creek, a tidal waterway which gives river com- munication with Rangoon. In Ma-ubin District, about 20 miles below the point where the To river leaves the Irrawaddy, the Kyaiklat river branches off from the To, and flows in a southerly direction, past Kyaiklat and Pyapon, into the sea. In the latter part of its course it is called the Pyapon nvei. A few miles below Kyaiklat the Gon- nymdan stream takes off from the Kyaiklat river, and flows first south- west as far as Bogale, where it is connected by various creeks with the Irrawaddy, and thence almost due south into the sea at Pyindaye, under the name of the Dala river, Its lower reaches are sepaiated <o:p></o:p>

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PYAPON DISTRICT 3 <o:p></o:p>

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from those of the Irrawaddy by two large islands which aie covered with fuel reseives. Besides these more important channels, the District possesses countless tidal creeks the Uyin, Podok, Wayakaing, and others which convert it into a maze of muddy channels <o:p></o:p>

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The geological and botanical features of Pyapon are the same as are noticed under HANTHAWADDY DISTRICT. The soil is mainly alluvium and the jungle vegetation is largely swamp, <o:p></o:p>

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The tiger and the elephant aie practically confined to the uncleared areas in the south, where theie aie also herds of wild buffalo, wild hog, and hog deer. Crocodiles are not uncommon in the creeks, and turtles abound at certain seasons of the year on the sandbanks along the southern coast. <o:p></o:p>

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The climate, though damp and depressing, is healthy, and the proximity of the sea renders the temperature equable. The average minimum temperature throughout the year is about 65, the average maximum 95, and the average mean about 80. One of the results of the proximity of the Gulf of Maitaban is that the winds aie decidedly stronger than farther inland. The country enjoys a regular and copious rainfall, rather in excess of the mean for the delta. The annual average is about 95 inches, deci easing towards the north in the areas farthest removed from the coast. <o:p></o:p>

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The District as at present constituted is of modern creation, having been taken in 1903 from Thong wa (now Ma-ubin) District, which itself only dates back to 1875 Until recent times the country was a stretch of unreclaimed jungle, the only indications of an eailier civilization being in the south-west. The village of Eya, from which the Irrawaddy takes its name, is now an insignificant hamlet, though it must have been a place of no little repute in bygone days. Of historical remains there are practically none. The most ancient and reveied pagoda is that known as the Tawkyat at Dedaye, and even this is supposed to be not more than a hunared years old <o:p></o:p>

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Owing to various minor alterations in the township boundaries, exact figures for the population of the area now composing the District are not obtainable foi past years In 1881 the whole District formed little more than a single township of PU Thongwa, with a population of about 97,000. In 1891 this total had increased to about 139,000, and in 1901 to 226,443, a rate of growth exceptional even for Burma. <o:p></o:p>

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The distribution according to the Census of 1901 is shown in the table on the next page. <o:p></o:p>

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The only towns are PYAPON, the head-quarters of the District, KYAIKLAT, and DEDAYE The increase in the northern part has been normal , but in the two southern townships the giowth of population <o:p></o:p>

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PYAPON DISTRICT <o:p></o:p>

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has been extraordinarily rapid, reaching 350 per cent, in the sea-board township of Bogale. Its rapidity is due to immigration into the low- lying waste areas, where fresh land is constantly being brought under the plough. The influx has been mainly from Hanthawaddy and Henzada in Lowei Bui ma, and from Minbu, Myingyan, and Mandalay in Upper Burma 3 but Indian immigrants are also numerous. Though the inland portions are densely populated, the southern tracts washed by the sea have comparatively few inhabitants, large areas in fact being absolutely uninhabited. Burmese is spoken by 200,000 of the inhabi- tants, and Karen by 15,000 <o:p></o:p>

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Township

Area in Sq. Mile

Number of Towns

Number of Villages

Population in 901

Population per square mile

Persentage of variation in population between 1891 and 1901

Number of Persons able to read and write

"Pyapon

Bogale
Kjaiklat
Dedaye "

"431

1,057
277

372"

"I

I
I "

"157

272
394
312"

"43,922

43,756
71,770
66,995"

"102

41
259
180"

"+80

+350
+51
+18"

"16,598

25,680
20,100
19,552"

District Total

2,137

3

1,135

2,26,443

106

+63

This article has been extracted from THE<span />

 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908. OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS.<o:p></o:p>

Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts.Many units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value. <a href="https://archive.org/details/imperialgazettee015643mbp" rel="nofollow">The Imperial Gazetteer Of India Vol XXI</a>" THE <o:p></o:p>

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IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA <o:p></o:p>

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VOL. XXI <o:p></o:p>

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PUSHKAR TO SALWEEN <o:p></o:p>

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NEW EDITION <o:p></o:p>

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PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY'S _S*RE.TARY OP STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL <o:p></o:p>

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OXFORD <o:p></o:p>

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AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1908 <o:p></o:p>

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HENRY FROWDE, M.A. <o:p></o:p>

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PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OP OXFORD <o:p></o:p>

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LONDON, EDINBURGH NEW YORK AND TORONTO <o:p></o:p>

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INTRODUCTORY NOTES <o:p></o:p>

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NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION <o:p></o:p>

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Vowel-Sounds <o:p></o:p>

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a has the sound of a in ' woman/ a has the sound of a in ' father ' e has the vowel-sound in c grey.' i has the sound of i m ' pin ' I has the sound of / in ' police.' o has the sound of o in ' bone,' u has the sound of n in * bull.' u has the sound of u in ' flute,' ai has the vowel-sound in ' mine.' au has the vowel-sound m ' house/ <o:p></o:p>

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It should be stated that no attempt has been made to distinguish between the long and short sounds of e and o in the Dravidian languages, which possess the vowel-sounds in ' bet ' and ' hot ' in addition to those giveti^bove Nor has it been thought necessary to mark vowels as long m cases where mistakes in pronunciation were not likely to be made, <o:p></o:p>

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Consonants <o:p></o:p>

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Most Indian languages have different Forms for a number of con- sonants, such as d) t, r>&c., marked m scientific works by the use of dots or italics. As the European ear distinguishes these with difficulty in oidinary pronunciation, it has been considered undesir- able to embarrass the reader with them ; and only two notes are required. In the first place, the Arabic k, a strong guttural, has been represented by k instead of ^, which is often used. Secondly, it should be remarked that aspirated consonants are common ; and, m particular, dh and th (except in Burma) never have the sound of th in 'this' or 'thin,' but should be pronounced as ia ' woodhouse' and 'boathook 5 <o:p></o:p>

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A 2 <o:p></o:p>

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iv INTRODUCTORY NOTES <o:p></o:p>

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Burmese Words <o:p></o:p>

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Burmese and some of the languages on the frontier of China have the following special sounds : <o:p></o:p>

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aw has the vowel-sound in ' law.' o and u are pronounced as in German. gy is pronounced almost like/ in * jewel ' ky is pronounced almost like ch in ' church. 7 th is pronounced in some cases as in l this,' in some cases as in <o:p></o:p>

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i thin.' <o:p></o:p>

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w after a consonant has the force of uw. Thus, ywa and pwe are disyllables, pronounced as if written yitwa and <o:p></o:p>

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It should also be noted that, whereas in Indian words the accent or stress is distributed almost equally on each syllable, in Burmese there is a tendency to throw special stress on the last syllable <o:p></o:p>

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General <o:p></o:p>

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The names of some places e.g. Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow, Cawnpore have obtained a popular fixity of spelling, while special forms have been officially prescribed for others Names of persons are often spelt and pronounced differently in different parts of India ; but the variations have been made as few as possible by assimilating forms almost alike, especially where a particular spelling has been generally adopted in English books <o:p></o:p>

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NOTES ON MONEY, PRICES, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES <o:p></o:p>

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As the currency of India is based upon the rupee, all statements with regard to money throughout the Gazetteer have necessarily been expressed in rupees, nor has it been found possible to add generally a conversion into sterling. Down to about 1873 the gold value of the rupee (containing 165 grains of pure silver) was approximately equal to zs., or one-tenth of a , and for that period it is easy to convert rupees into sterling by striking off the final cipher (Rs. 1,000 = 100). But after 1873, owing to the depreciation of silver as compared with gold throughout the world, there came a serious and progressive fall in the exchange, until at one time the gold value of the rupee dropped as low as is In order to provide a remedy for the heavy loss caused to the Government of India in respect of its gold payments to be made in England, and also to relieve foreign trade and finance from the inconvenience due to constant and unforeseen fluctuations in exchange, it was resolved in 1893 to close the mints to the free coinage of silver, and thus force up the value of the rupee by restricting the circulation. The intention was to laise <o:p></o:p>

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INTR OD UCTOR Y NO TES v <o:p></o:p>

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the exchange value of the rupee to is 4^, and then introduce a gold standard (though not necessanly a gold cuirency) at the rate of Rs. 15 = i. This policy has been completely successful. From 1899 on- wards the value of the rupee has been maintained, with insignificant fluctuations, at the proposed late of i,?. 4^. ; and consequently since that date three rupees have been equivalent to two lupees befoie 1873 For the intermediate period, between 1873 and 1899, it is manifestly impossible to adopt any fixed sterling value for a constantly changing rupee. But since 1899, if it is desired to convert rupees into sterling, not only must the final cipher be stiuck off (as befoie 1873), DI U also one-third must be subtracted from the result. Thus Rs. 1,000 = 100 -J = (about) 67. <o:p></o:p>

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Another matter in connexion with the expression of money state- ments in terms of rupees requires to be explained. The method of numerical notation in India differs from that which pievails through- out Europe. Large numbers are not punctuated in hundieds of thou- sands and millions, but in lakhs and crores. A lakh is one hunared thousand (written out as 1,00,000), and a crore is one hunared lakhs or ten millions (written out as 1,00,00,000), Consequently, accord- ing to the exchange value of the rupee, a lakh of rupees (Rs 1,00,000) may be read as the equivalent of 10,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) 6,667 after 1899 ; while a crore of rupees (Rs. 1,00,00,000) may similarly be read as the equivalent of 1,000,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) 666,667 after 1899. <o:p></o:p>

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Finally, it should be mentioned that the rupee is divided into 1 6 annas, a fraction commonly used for many purposes by both natives and Europeans. The anna was formerly reckoned as i^d. ; it may now be considered as exactly corresponding to id The anna is again subdivided into 12 pies. <o:p></o:p>

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The various systems of weights used in India combine uniformity of scale with immense vanations in the weight of units. The scale used generally throughout Northern India, and less commonly in Madras and Bombay, may be thus expiessed : one maund = 40 seers ; one seer = 16 chittaks or 80 tolas. The actual weight of a seer varies gieatly from District to District, and even from village to village., but in the standard system the tola is 180 grains Troy (the exact weight of the rupee), and the seei thus weighs 2-057 lb., and the maund 82-28 lb. This standaid is used in official leports and throughout the Gazetteer. <o:p></o:p>

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For calculating retail prices, the universal custom in India is to express them in tenns of seers to the rupee. Thus, when prices change, what varies is not the amount of money to be paid for the <o:p></o:p>

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vi INTR OD UCTOR Y NO TES <o:p></o:p>

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same quantity, but the quantity to be obtained for the same amount of money. In other words, prices in India are quantity prices, not money prices, When the figure of quantity goes up, this of course means that the price has gone down, which is at first sight perplexing to an English reader. It may, however, be mentioned that quantity prices are not altogether unknown in England, especially at small shops, where pennyworths of many groceries can be bought. Eggs, likewise, are commonly sold at a varying number for the shilling If it'be desired to convert quantity prices from Indian into English denominations without having recourse to money piices (which would often be misleading), the following scale may be adopted based upon the assumptions that a seer is exactly 2 Ib , and that the value of the rupee remains constant at i s. 4^. . i seer per rupee = (about) 3 Ib. for 2s. ; 2 seers per rupee = (about) 6 Ib. for 2S ; and so on. <o:p></o:p>

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The name of the unit for square measurement in India generall} is the bigha, which varies greatly m different parts of the country But areas ha\e always been expressed throughout the Gazetteer either in square miles or m acres. <o:p></o:p>

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MAP <o:p></o:p>

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RAJPUIANA to face p. 154 <o:p></o:p>

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IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA <o:p></o:p>

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VOLUME XXI <o:p></o:p>

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Pushkar. Town, lake, and place of pilgrimage in Ajmer District, Rajputana, situated in 26 29' N and 74 33' E ; 2,389 feet above sea-level. Population (1901), 3,831, neaily all Hindus, Pushkar is said commonly (but erroneously) to be the only town in India that contains a temple dedicated to Brahma, who here performed the sacri- fice known as yaj net, \\hereby the lake of Pushkar became so holy that the greatest sinner, by bathing in it, earns the delights of Paradise. The town contains five principal temples, dedicated to Brahma, Savitri, Badn Narayan, Varha, and Siva Atmateswara ; but they are of modern construction, as the earlier buildings suffered severely under Aurangzeb, Bathing ghats line the lake, and many of the princely families of Raj- putana have houses round the margin, No living thing may be put to death within the limits of the town, A great fair is held in October and November, attended by about 100,000 pilgrims, who bathe in the sacred lake. At this time there is a large tiade in horses, camels, bullocks, and miscellaneous merchandise. <o:p></o:p>

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Pushpagiri. Village and hill on the Madras-Mysore boidei. See <o:p></o:p>

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SUBRAHMANYA, <o:p></o:p>

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Puttur Subdivision. Subdivision of South Kanaia Distuct, Madras, consisting of the UPPINANGADI and KASARAGOD taluks <o:p></o:p>

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Puttur T&hsll.ZamtJidan tahsll in North Arcot District, Madras, consisting of the northern half of the KARVETNAGAR samindan. Area, 542 square miles ; population m 1901, 170,235, compared with 155,546 in 1891 It contains 340 villages, the head-quarters being PUTTUR. <o:p></o:p>

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Puttur Village. Head-quarters of the Uppmangadi subdivision and taluk of South Kanara Distnct, Madras, situated in 12 46' N. and 75 12' E Population (1901), 3,999 The surrounding country belonged to Coorg, and after the Coorg rebellion of 1837 troops were stationed here till 1860. <o:p></o:p>

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Pyapalli. Town in the Pattikonda taluk of Kurnool District, Madras, situated in 15 14' N, and 77 44' E,, at the foot of a granite hill, on the trunk road from Bangalore and Gooty to Hyderabad, <o:p></o:p>

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2 PYAPALLI <o:p></o:p>

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This is the highest town in the District, being about 1,750 feet above sea-level, and is probably the healthiest station. Population (1901), 3,666. It is the head-quai ters of a deputy-tato/^?-. There is a good travellers' bungalow situated in a fine tope planted by Mr, Robertson, a former Collector. The representatives of the ancient pohgars who built the town and fort still reside here, and draw pensions from Government. <o:p></o:p>

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Pyapon. District. A sea-board delta District in the Irrawaddy Division of Lower Burma, lying along the Gulf of Martaban, between 15 40' and 16 41' N. and 95 6' and 96 6' E., with an area of 2,137 square miles. In shape it is a truncated triangle, the sides being the Irrawaddy on the west and the To or China Bakir river on the east, while the base is formed by the sea-coast, which has a general south- west to north-east direction. It is bounded on the east by Hantha- waddy District , on the west b> Myaungmya ; and on the north by Ma-ubin. The entire area consists of a vast plain, intersected by tidal creeks and waterways. With the exception of some aspects very sma11 areas caue(i kondans, the whole of this level is subject to inundation at high spring-tides, and a good deal is submerged throughout the monsoon period The kondans are narrow strips of land, about 4 to 10 feet above the level of the plain, on which the soil is dry and sandy. They are supposed to be the remnants of old sea-beaches. The rivers are all tidal, and form the southeastern portion of the netv\ork of waters by which the Irra- waddy finds its way into the Gulf of Martaban. That river, running bouthwaids to the sea, bounds the District on the west, except in one place where Myaungmya District extends east of the stream. It is naugable by river craft at all seasons of the year. The To river (or China Bakir) takes off from the Irrawaddy in Ma-ubin District, and runs in a south-easterly direction, separating Pyapon from Hantha- waddy. Four miles below Dedaye it spreads into a secondary delta, its two western branches being called the Donyan and Thandi nveis, both wide but of little importance. Into the To river itself (the eastern branch), at the extreme south-east cornei of the District, flows the Thakutpm or Bassein creek, a tidal waterway which gives river com- munication with Rangoon. In Ma-ubin District, about 20 miles below the point where the To river leaves the Irrawaddy, the Kyaiklat river branches off from the To, and flows in a southerly direction, past Kyaiklat and Pyapon, into the sea. In the latter part of its course it is called the Pyapon nvei. A few miles below Kyaiklat the Gon- nymdan stream takes off from the Kyaiklat river, and flows first south- west as far as Bogale, where it is connected by various creeks with the Irrawaddy, and thence almost due south into the sea at Pyindaye, under the name of the Dala river, Its lower reaches are sepaiated <o:p></o:p>

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PYAPON DISTRICT 3 <o:p></o:p>

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from those of the Irrawaddy by two large islands which aie covered with fuel reseives. Besides these more important channels, the District possesses countless tidal creeks the Uyin, Podok, Wayakaing, and others which convert it into a maze of muddy channels <o:p></o:p>

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The geological and botanical features of Pyapon are the same as are noticed under HANTHAWADDY DISTRICT. The soil is mainly alluvium and the jungle vegetation is largely swamp, <o:p></o:p>

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The tiger and the elephant aie practically confined to the uncleared areas in the south, where theie aie also herds of wild buffalo, wild hog, and hog deer. Crocodiles are not uncommon in the creeks, and turtles abound at certain seasons of the year on the sandbanks along the southern coast. <o:p></o:p>

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The climate, though damp and depressing, is healthy, and the proximity of the sea renders the temperature equable. The average minimum temperature throughout the year is about 65, the average maximum 95, and the average mean about 80. One of the results of the proximity of the Gulf of Maitaban is that the winds aie decidedly stronger than farther inland. The country enjoys a regular and copious rainfall, rather in excess of the mean for the delta. The annual average is about 95 inches, deci easing towards the north in the areas farthest removed from the coast. <o:p></o:p>

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The District as at present constituted is of modern creation, having been taken in 1903 from Thong wa (now Ma-ubin) District, which itself only dates back to 1875 Until recent times the country was a stretch of unreclaimed jungle, the only indications of an eailier civilization being in the south-west. The village of Eya, from which the Irrawaddy takes its name, is now an insignificant hamlet, though it must have been a place of no little repute in bygone days. Of historical remains there are practically none. The most ancient and reveied pagoda is that known as the Tawkyat at Dedaye, and even this is supposed to be not more than a hunared years old <o:p></o:p>

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Owing to various minor alterations in the township boundaries, exact figures for the population of the area now composing the District are not obtainable foi past years In 1881 the whole District formed little more than a single township of PU Thongwa, with a population of about 97,000. In 1891 this total had increased to about 139,000, and in 1901 to 226,443, a rate of growth exceptional even for Burma. <o:p></o:p>

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The distribution according to the Census of 1901 is shown in the table on the next page. <o:p></o:p>

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The only towns are PYAPON, the head-quarters of the District, KYAIKLAT, and DEDAYE The increase in the northern part has been normal , but in the two southern townships the giowth of population <o:p></o:p>

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PYAPON DISTRICT <o:p></o:p>

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has been extraordinarily rapid, reaching 350 per cent, in the sea-board township of Bogale. Its rapidity is due to immigration into the low- lying waste areas, where fresh land is constantly being brought under the plough. The influx has been mainly from Hanthawaddy and Henzada in Lowei Bui ma, and from Minbu, Myingyan, and Mandalay in Upper Burma 3 but Indian immigrants are also numerous. Though the inland portions are densely populated, the southern tracts washed by the sea have comparatively few inhabitants, large areas in fact being absolutely uninhabited. Burmese is spoken by 200,000 of the inhabi- tants, and Karen by 15,000 <o:p></o:p>

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