Latest revision as of 14:56, 16 January 2022

[edit] India’s diplomatic efforts

Raj Chengappa, Ananth Krishnan in Beijing |NSG: The Great Wall of Xi | June 30, 2016India Today

On June 27, at a quiet ceremony in New Delhi, Foreign Secretary S. Jaishankar signed India's accession to the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), making it the 35th member of this exclusive club. It was a triumph of sorts because the Regime was set up in 1987 to prevent India and other aspiring countries from acquiring the critical technology and material required to build nuclear-tipped missiles. What made India's entry special was that China, despite several attempts, has still not been admitted as a member.

Yet even as the diplomatic and scientific community in India rejoiced at the achievement, their celebrations and those of the Indian government were muted due to India's recently rebuffed bid to become a member of another technology restraint regime, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). The NSG, a grouping of 48 members, was formed in the wake of India's first nuclear test in 1974 and put in place a rigid set of rules that prevented its members from engaging in nuclear trade with those who did not adhere to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

Just the previous week, at the annual NSG plenary meeting in Seoul from June 20-24, India fought a bruising battle to be admitted as a member after it had put in a formal application in May this year. But China, which was admitted as an NSG member only in 2004, spearheaded a campaign that stalled the consensus India was hoping to build. Though member nations can continue to trade with India, because of the special waiver the NSG granted in 2008 as part of the landmark Indo-US civilian nuclear deal, there was little doubt that the outcome of Seoul was a diplomatic slap to India's efforts.

The Opposition parties were quick to castigate Prime Minister Narendra Modi for his "ill-timed" high-decibel diplomatic folly. Congress vice-president Rahul Gandhi tweeted, "NSG: How to lose a negotiation by Narendra Modi #FailedModiDiplomacy." Even academicians and former diplomats questioned the need for pushing for NSG membership when India had already been granted a waiver. The big questions remained: Why did India push for a full NSG membership? Did the Modi government handle the naysayers, particularly China, well? Can India recover ground and push for early admission to the NSG? india today spoke to key officials involved in the NSG campaign and the inside story reveals it was not the diplomatic debacle it has been painted as but a carefully calibrated and audacious bid. Here is why.

[edit] SHOULD INDIA HAVE PUSHED FOR NSG MEMBERSHIP?

Among the major criticisms levelled was that with India already getting a NSG waiver, there was no need to push so hard for what was being described as "second class membership" which didn't give it any new privileges. Satyabrata Pal, a seasoned former diplomat, wrote in The Hindu: "This tilting at the windmills of the NSG is manic, but it's not diplomacy, it's folly."

Pal's well-argued piece ignores several imperatives that India faced in its NSG membership quest. When Modi took over as prime minister in May 2014, despite the outstanding achievement of the Manmohan Singh government in ending India's pariah status in nuclear commerce, there was plenty of unfinished business. Overruling objections his party had about the Indo-US nuclear deal, Modi went about implementing the commitments and provisions with extraordinary commitment and zeal, and needs to be commended for his bipartisan approach.

Top among the priorities was to speed up India's bid to become a member of all the key restraint regimes, including the NSG, that had been put in place to slow down or block India's efforts to develop a defence against weapons of mass destruction. In November 2010, US President Barack Obama had promised Manmohan Singh that the US would work towards making India a full member of the NSG apart from the other three restraining regimes: the MTCR, the Australia Group (to control the spread of chemical and biological weapons) and the Wassenaar Arrangement (export controls for dual use goods and technologies).

Modi's team found that while the Manmohan Singh government had worked towards becoming a member of all the four restraint regimes from 2011 onwards, its efforts had been bogged down for various reasons. As a senior MEA official said, "It was a policy choice then, but we took on more than we could chew. All four regimes required particular administrative and legal measures, fulfilling which required a humongous effort among several ministries. As a result it became almost mission impossible."

So rather than pursue all four at the same time, Modi's team decided to prioritise their moves, putting the NSG and MTCR membership at the top of the list. On NSG, among their concerns was that while in 2008 the UPA-I government had claimed that the NSG had given it a "clean waiver", that status was altered three years later when UPA-II was in power. In 2011, the NSG revised and updated its guidelines for all members to prohibit trade in enrichment and reprocessing technology with any country that had not signed the NPT. Since India had refused to sign the NPT since its inception in 1968, calling it "unfair and discriminatory", the amendment was clearly targeted at Delhi.

After India protested, the US, Russia and France issued statements that they stood by their agreements to provide India "full nuclear fuel cycle" cooperation irrespective of the NSG guidelines. But as an official points out, "It should have been a wake-up call for the then policymakers that the NSG could alter its rules and we would be forced to adhere to it. It was imperative that we move into the living room where decisions were being made rather than wait in the verandah and be told what we can or cannot do."

[edit] WHY COULDN'T THE UPA-II DO IT?

Modi was advised to pull out all stops to get NSG membership. For that, Obama had to fulfil his commitment and get the US administration to do the heavy lifting as they did in 2008. Given the preoccupations of the UPA-II in the final years of its reign, Indo-US relations had experienced a drift. Shedding any personal hurt he harboured against the US for denying him a visa since the 2002 Gujarat riots, Modi brought the mojo back into Indo-US relations by quickly establishing a personal rapport with Obama in his first meeting with him in September 2014. Modi hardsold his regime as more open to do business with. American companies told him that they had hoped that after the Indo-US nuclear deal they could sell nuclear plants to India, making the deal a win-win for both countries. But their efforts were stymied because of the problems posed by the new Indian nuclear liability law that was passed by Parliament in 2010.

When he returned from the US, Modi convened a team of the external affairs, finance and law ministries to overcome the problem. India's new liability law had put the onus of any failure of a nuclear plant on the manufacturers, including payment of heavy compensation. The US saw red, as did Russia and France, who were also negotiating to set up new nuclear power reactors in India. They pointed out that it didn't conform to existing international norms on liability. Even private domestic nuclear plant manufacturers were dissuaded by the new law. So Modi's team worked to find a way to overcome the vexatious liability clause without amending the law. The government did that by setting up a special Indian Nuclear Insurance Pool of Rs 1,500 crore in July 2015 that took care of the liability concerns of both foreign and domestic nuclear plant suppliers.

There were two other issues with the US that Modi addressed. Under the Indo-US nuclear deal, India had agreed to designate civilian and military nuclear power plants and put the civilian ones under safeguards. In December 2014, India complied by putting the two remaining civilian plants that had been identified under IAEA safeguards. Then to demonstrate proof of its commitment to non-proliferation in January 2015, India joined an expert group to discuss how to move the stalled UN-sponsored Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) negotiations in Geneva forward.

[edit] WHY THE URGENCY TO GET NSG MEMBERSHIP NOW?

"It was not a summer madness," as a senior MEA official put it. The quest for NSG membership became urgent because of two major but unrelated reasons: the Paris climate change summit and the fact that Obama's presidency would end in December 2016. At the climate change summit in November 2015, India was initially regarded as the problem as it was refusing to commit to reduction in its reliance on fossil fuel like coal for energy. Modi boldly turned the tables and made India a part of the solution. Instead of dragging his feet, Modi proactively committed that by 2030, India would raise the share of clean energy from non-fossil fuels to 40 per cent of the total. He then outlined an international solar alliance to evolve cheaper and more efficient technology to harness solar energy.

Yet more than solar energy, Modi and his team were calculating that the massive increase in nuclear power would enable India to meet the targets. Nuclear power now generates around 6,000 MW and constitutes only three per cent of India's total power. Modi had outlined an aggressive plan to ramp up nuclear power generation to 63,000 MW by 2032, pushing its share of the total to 9 per cent. So apart from sanctioning 16 new domestic power plants that would generate an additional 10,600 MW, the Modi government planned to enter into tie-ups with foreign companies from the US, Russia and France for 26 new power plants that would generate 29,500 MW.

To fulfil such an ambitious target, both Indian and foreign companies needed finance and technological tie-ups. For that, international investors required stability in policy as well as to ensure that there was no change in the rules of the game. Large players in the nuclear business like Europe, Korea and Japan said they would be more comfortable if India became a member-it would be easier to make investment commitments. Membership of the NSG had become a necessity for India. "NSG membership was like the triple AAA rating for investors", as an official put it. Also, by linking its climate change goals to NSG membership, India was putting additional pressure on major countries to push its case.

Meanwhile, Indian policymakers watched with increasing concern, the race for the next US presidency. Against all odds, the maverick Donald Trump, with his bellicose statements and charges against all and sundry, was gaining ground and would go on to win the Republican nomination. Meanwhile, Hillary Clinton struggled to beat her rival Bernie Sanders for the Democrats' nomination. All this added to India's uncertainty. Rather than wait for the next president, Modi and his team decided they should push through India's bid this year itself while Obama was still at the helm. After all, he had promised to secure India's NSG membership. "In a way, we had no choice, events forced the timing-we had to go the NSG plenary in June," says an official.

[edit] DID INDIA DO ITS HOMEWORK BEFORE APPLYING?

In October 2015, when Ambassador Rafael Marianno Grossi of Argentina, then chair of NSG, came for his annual review, India sought his advice on how best to apply for membership. Grossi advised that before making a formal application they should talk to members and check out the concerns they may raise and then make a formal presentation to them about how India was addressing the issues they raised.

In April this year, when the NSG Consultation Group was to meet in Vienna, India wrote a letter to all members requesting that it be permitted to make a presentation. When the NSG met, China stiffly opposed such a move, stating, there is "no consensus on India's membership, so no presentation." An Indian official present described it as a "Catch 22 situation-we can't start the process till we have a consensus, and we can't work for a consensus till we have a process". However, Australia bypassed the Chinese protest by hosting an event on the margins and India presented its case.

Jaishankar after signing India's accession to the MTCR in Delhi on June 27. Photo: PTI

When the MEA team returned to Delhi, they did a reality check as to where the 48 members stood. In their assessment they had 24 yea-sayers, while many others were either quiet or wanted some criteria for membership. Only a handful appeared opposed to the idea. If India's bid had to be taken seriously, it needed more than just a simple majority. Decisions in the NSG are taken by consensus and even one dissenting member could block a resolution. So the MEA deployed secretary-level officers as envoys to go and brief all the NSG members.

It was also decided that Sushma Swaraj, the Union minister for external affairs, and the prime minister would be requested to speak to select ministers and heads of state. By the end of the process, Swaraj had personally called her counterparts in 26 countries. And the prime minister had spoken to 12 heads of states in addition to making it a point to include in his travel plans countries like Ireland, Switzerland and Mexico where he made a personal request to back India's NSG bid. Answering criticism as to why Modi had raised the pitch, an official defended his action, saying, "It is unfair to say the PM was making a huge show for publicity-in his mind he was willing to go the extra distance for the good of the country."

On May 10, Jaishankar formally presented to Grossi, the NSG chair, India's 300-page application seeking admission into the NSG and requested that it be considered at the annual plenary meeting to be held in Seoul from June 20-24. A fortnight later, Pakistan also put in a formal application for admission into the NSG. It was evident that Pakistan had China's backing. But as compared to India, Pakistan had no credentials to show that it was a responsible member of the nuclear fraternity. Its top nuclear scientist, A.Q. Khan, had been charged with selling nuclear secrets to North Korea and Iran. Unlike India, it had not separated its civilian reactors from military ones or adhered to various key protocols the IAEA had mandated. Pakistan's application to the NSG was seen by the rest of the members as China's effort to either block India's chances or to push Pakistan through by hyphenating it with India's application. India knew it had a big fight on its hands.

[edit] WHY 2016 WAS DIFFERENT FROM THE 2008 NSG SUCCESS?

The Modi government has been criticised for the "ham-handed" way it handled the NSG membership bid, and it is now being contrasted with the way Manmohan Singh and his team went about "quietly" winning support. It is not as if there was no hype or hoopla around the UPA-I bid to secure a waiver. There was stiff opposition from the coalition partners that finally saw the Left break away, accusing the prime minister of being a pawn of the US.

China had opposed India then too but not as overtly as it is doing now. In 2008, China told India privately that it would not oppose India's waiver if India got the support of all the other members. What tilted the balance was when George Bush called up Hu Jintao and requested him to back India. The Chinese smarted at the call but went along with the consensus.

What has changed since 2008 for China? China in 2016, for one, is a vastly different beast. Since taking over from Hu in 2013, Xi Jinping has outlined a far more robust foreign policy. Gone is the caution that defined the Hu era. This is most evident in China's ties with the US. A central theme of Xi's diplomacy is "building a new type of great power relations" with the US, which implies, even if not explicitly, that China now sees both countries as equals in a league of their own. Beijing is ready to stand up to the US in ways it wasn't quite prepared to do earlier, and the US no longer has the leverage with China it once had-a transformation Delhi needed to appreciate.

For many in China, the pressure from Washington in 2008 to allow the exception for India at the NSG still rankles. "For the waiver in 2008, the US worked very hard and finally succeeded in getting India treated as an exceptional case. Would that work today? I am not sure," Zhao Gancheng, a senior strategic expert and director of South Asia Studies at the Shanghai Institute for International Studies, told india today. The Indian team was conscious of the new international realities and in 2016 did a lot of the heavy lifting by itself rather than as one official put it, "outsourcing it to America". Also, they were aware that they had to confront a far more aggressive China which if still not able to shape the international order was strong enough to be what an expert called "a blocking power".

The other big shift in China's diplomacy is that Beijing appears to have gone all-in when it comes to its "all-weather" ally, Pakistan. Gone is the attempt-or pretence, some would argue-of seeking a balance in ties with India. In Beijing, Pakistan is increasingly described as China's only ally. Over the past few years, coinciding with Xi's rise, Chinese state media have taken to referring to Pakistan as "ba tie", or "iron brother".

Xi has made an economic corridor to Pakistan a central feature of his pet Silk Road initiative, planning roads and energy projects in a corridor that runs through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir despite India's protestations. What is worrying for India is that perhaps for the first time in more than a decade, China's policies are being shaped by Pakistani considerations. "The irony is," one senior diplomat put it, "they are re-hyphenating us with Pakistan at a time when we have finally de-hyphenated China and Pakistan." This was also evident in the NSG.

To secure China's support, President Pranab Mukherjee was asked to request Xi's cooperation when he met him during his visit in the last week of May. Jaishankar, who accompanied him, also spoke to his Chinese counterpart and the foreign minister. It is learnt that China conveyed the message that "we may not be open about an NSG membership for India but we are not closed either". The foreign secretary then made a secret visit to Beijing, days before the NSG was to meet in Seoul, something india today was the first to reveal. It is learnt that China told Jaishankar, "We are prepared to look at accommodating India. But it can't only be about India in the long run." China was clear: We are willing to let you in but you should not come in the way of Pakistan's entry. China's concern was that once India was in the NSG, it would block Pakistan's chances.

For India, this was the opening it was looking for. Modi's team was confident that if criteria were laid down for entry into the NSG, India was in an excellent position to qualify. They were also aware that Pakistan, with its poor track record stood little chance of gaining entry until it cleaned up its act. Moreover, as some nations pointed out, it was better to check Pakistan's nuclear ambitions by dangling the NSG membership as a carrot.

So it was a confident Swaraj who, in her annual press conference in Delhi a day before the NSG met at Seoul, asserted "China is not blocking India's entry to the NSG. It is only talking about criteria and procedures. I am hopeful that we would be able to convince China to support our entry to the NSG." As far as the Pakistan application was concerned, she said, India being a non-member has no comment, but clarified that "we will not oppose entry of any nation to NSG" and "each country should be considered on the basis of their merit.

[edit] CHINA: FROM LINKAGE TO BLOCKAGE

When Jaishankar and Amandeep Singh Gill, the MEA joint secretary in charge of nuclear affairs, flew in to Seoul for the NSG plenary, they were confident that if China kept its word India would be through. But they were not taking any chances. They divided the NSG members into five groups: the core group of supporters included the US, Russia, Japan, Canada, the UK, Germany and Australia, who would not only back India but were willing to persuade others to come on board. Then there was a "wider support group" consisting largely of East European countries, Central Asia and some from Western Europe like the Netherlands and Belgium. Together, these groups totalled 38 of the 48 countries.

Of the remaining 10 countries, the third group consisted of six countries, including Brazil, Switzerland and Turkey, that believed in what was termed the "soft process". These countries were willing to back India at the meeting if the NSG simultaneously agreed upon criteria for admitting non-NPT members like India and Pakistan. The fourth group consisted of three members-Austria, New Zealand and Ireland-who were categorised as wanting the "hard process". They were not opposed to India's bid but wanted to get the sequencing right-maintaining that the criteria should be fixed first before the Indian or any other application could be considered. China was unique in its opposition and was classified as a Group of 1. It was willing only if Pakistan's application was also considered. But within a day China changed its stand when it found that very few NSG members wanted Pakistan's case to be considered. The estimate was that 46 members opposed Pakistan and only two, China and Turkey, were supportive.

When China realised that there was stiff opposition to Pakistan's application, it changed its stand from "linkage to blockage", as an Indian official put it. China first pursued procedural tactics and told the chair, now headed by South Korea, that India's application was not on the agenda and couldn't be discussed. India's supporters hit back by forcing the chair to agree to a discussion. It was then that China turned the tables on India. South Korea needed China's backing to come out strongly against North Korea's nuclear shenanigans. As a quid pro quo, China persuaded South Korea into passing a killer decision: There would be a discussion on India's application but no decision in this meeting.

The moment the chair decided the norms, India knew its chances to be admitted in this round were close to nil. Nevertheless, Modi raised the stakes by requesting Xi in his meeting with him on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Tashkent, to consider India's case for the NSG in a "fair" and "objective" manner. Meanwhile, with no decision in sight, some nations that had pledged support to India, talked of evolving criteria to permit non-NPT members, a development China cited as indicative of other members' opposition.

It also gave China the opportunity to put out its maximalist position: Unless a nation signs the NPT, it should not be admitted as a member. This was a no-no for India. Instead, India pointed out that the NSG stipulates that a member needs to "adhere" to the NPT rules but does not explicitly state that it should be a member. India pointed out that in 2008 when the NSG had given its waiver, India had agreed to the widest possible implementation of the NPT provisions and had already proven its credentials.

Knowing that waiting for the next year's NSG plenary could create fresh problems, India then lobbied hard to keep the door open for it. Mexico pushed for Argentina's Grossi, the outgoing chairperson, to head an informal panel to evolve a consensus on how to proceed with India's application. India is hoping that this winter will bring it some nuclear contentment. When contacted by india today, Jaishankar remained cautious and said, "The door remains open and we will stay the course."

While India came out with a tough statement, singling out China for its opposition, the MEA later toned down the rhetoric. Rather than demonise China, the strategy was to use persuasion. In his interview to a television channel, Modi didn't reveal any bitterness and instead said, "Foreign policy is not about changing mindsets. It is about finding common ground and where our interests converge and how much." The fallout of the NSG issue on the bilateral relationship is still uncertain. In the past, India and China have largely succeeded in compartmentalising problems such as the boundary issue to keep relations on an even keel. In truth, India's leverage on this front is limited. Two-way trade which touched $71 billion last year is heavily skewed in China's favour, with the deficit reaching $51 billion.

What is clear is that playing the trade card would also come at a price: the Narendra Modi government has worked overtime to turn around investor sentiment in China after a decade of lukewarm response. Beijing is going forward in a big way with infrastructure projects that India needs, from massive solar plants in Andhra Pradesh to energy parks in Gujarat. Investments in 2015 were double the total amount of the past decade.

Overall, Jaishankar remains sanguine that India's membership would get through saying, "We will continue to use reason and our powers of persuasion to win NSG member nations over including China."

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Latest revision as of 14:56, 16 January 2022

Contents

[edit] India’s diplomatic efforts

[edit] SHOULD INDIA HAVE PUSHED FOR NSG MEMBERSHIP?

[edit] WHY COULDN'T THE UPA-II DO IT?

[edit] WHY THE URGENCY TO GET NSG MEMBERSHIP NOW?

[edit] DID INDIA DO ITS HOMEWORK BEFORE APPLYING?

[edit] WHY 2016 WAS DIFFERENT FROM THE 2008 NSG SUCCESS?

[edit] CHINA: FROM LINKAGE TO BLOCKAGE

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+On June 27, at a quiet ceremony in New Delhi, Foreign Secretary S. Jaishankar signed India's accession to the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), making it the 35th member of this exclusive club. It was a triumph of sorts because the Regime was set up in 1987 to prevent India and other aspiring countries from acquiring the critical technology and material required to build nuclear-tipped missiles. What made India's entry special was that China, despite several attempts, has still not been admitted as a member.
-<p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-family:"Garamond","serif"'><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p></span></p>
+Yet even as the diplomatic and scientific community in India rejoiced at the achievement, their celebrations and those of the Indian government were muted due to India's recently rebuffed bid to become a member of another technology restraint regime, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). The NSG, a grouping of 48 members, was formed in the wake of India's first nuclear test in 1974 and put in place a rigid set of rules that prevented its members from engaging in nuclear trade with those who did not adhere to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
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+Just the previous week, at the annual NSG plenary meeting in Seoul from June 20-24, India fought a bruising battle to be admitted as a member after it had put in a formal application in May this year. But China, which was admitted as an NSG member only in 2004, spearheaded a campaign that stalled the consensus India was hoping to build. Though member nations can continue to trade with India, because of the special waiver the NSG granted in 2008 as part of the landmark Indo-US civilian nuclear deal, there was little doubt that the outcome of Seoul was a diplomatic slap to India's efforts.
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-  <p class=MsoNormal style='margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:
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-  style='font-family:"Garamond","serif"'> College <o:p></o:p></span></p>
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+The Opposition parties were quick to castigate Prime Minister Narendra Modi for his "ill-timed" high-decibel diplomatic folly. Congress vice-president Rahul Gandhi tweeted, "NSG: How to lose a negotiation by Narendra Modi #FailedModiDiplomacy." Even academicians and former diplomats questioned the need for pushing for NSG membership when India had already been granted a waiver. The big questions remained: Why did India push for a full NSG membership? Did the Modi government handle the naysayers, particularly China, well? Can India recover ground and push for early admission to the NSG? india today spoke to key officials involved in the NSG campaign and the inside story reveals it was not the diplomatic debacle it has been painted as but a carefully calibrated and audacious bid. Here is why.
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+==SHOULD INDIA HAVE PUSHED FOR NSG MEMBERSHIP?==
-</body>
+Among the major criticisms levelled was that with India already getting a NSG waiver, there was no need to push so hard for what was being described as "second class membership" which didn't give it any new privileges. Satyabrata Pal, a seasoned former diplomat, wrote in The Hindu: "This tilting at the windmills of the NSG is manic, but it's not diplomacy, it's folly."
-</html>
+Pal's well-argued piece ignores several imperatives that India faced in its NSG membership quest. When Modi took over as prime minister in May 2014, despite the outstanding achievement of the Manmohan Singh government in ending India's pariah status in nuclear commerce, there was plenty of unfinished business. Overruling objections his party had about the Indo-US nuclear deal, Modi went about implementing the commitments and provisions with extraordinary commitment and zeal, and needs to be commended for his bipartisan approach.
-=box ends=
+Top among the priorities was to speed up India's bid to become a member of all the key restraint regimes, including the NSG, that had been put in place to slow down or block India's efforts to develop a defence against weapons of mass destruction. In November 2010, US President Barack Obama had promised Manmohan Singh that the US would work towards making India a full member of the NSG apart from the other three restraining regimes: the MTCR, the Australia Group (to control the spread of chemical and biological weapons) and the Wassenaar Arrangement (export controls for dual use goods and technologies).
-Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
-V
-ol. 11(1), January 2012, pp. 70-77
-Traditional, ethnic and fermented foods of different tribes of Manipur
-Devi P & Suresh Kumar P
-*
-ICAR RC NEH Region, AP centre, Basar, Arunachal Pradesh- 791101
-E-mail
-:
-psureshars@gmail.com
-Traditional  knowledge  exists  among  different  tribes  on  preparing  boiled  foods,  fermented  foods,  beverages  and
+Modi's team found that while the Manmohan Singh government had worked towards becoming a member of all the four restraint regimes from 2011 onwards, its efforts had been bogged down for various reasons. As a senior MEA official said, "It was a policy choice then, but we took on more than we could chew. All four regimes required particular administrative and legal measures, fulfilling which required a humongous effort among several ministries. As a result it became almost mission impossible."
-nutritionally rich traditional foods from various indigenous crop plants, forest products and meat of wild and domesticated
-animals.  Manipur  has  great  ethno-cultural  diversity,  with  two  major  tribes,  the
-Nagas
-and  the
-Kukis
-.  The
-Naga
-tribe
-comprises  the
-Maring
-,
-Mao,  Maram,  Kabui,  Tangkhul,  Tadubi,  Kolya,  Khoiras/Mayangkhong,  Koirangs,  Chirus  and
-Maring
-where  as  the
-Kuki
-tribe comprises  the
-Mizos,  Paite,  Thadou  and Vaiphei.  Meitei
-and
-Meitei  Pangals
-are  two  non
-tribal  communities  of  Manipur  who  has  individual  identity.  The  traditional  foods  of  the
-Manipuries
-comprises
-Iromba,
-Champhu,  Kangshoi,  Hawaichar,  Soibum,  Ngaree,  ,  Paknam,  Chagem  pomba,  Kangshu,  Hentak,  Khazing,  Heikak,  sticky
-rice  chapatti/bread,
-etc
-.
-Alcoholic  beverages  made  up  of  rice  are  very  common  in  almost  all  the  festivals  of  the  tribal
-peoples of Manipur locally called as
-Yu.
- Among different produces, the people of Manipur have the habit of taking variety
-of leafy vegetables which are available in plenty in the dense forests.
-Keywords:
-Manipur, Traditional foods, Fermented foods, Bamboo products, Ethnic foods
-IPC Int. Cl.
-:
-A47G, A47G 19/26, A47J 39/02, B01D 3/00, C12C 11/00, C12C 12/04, C12C 7/00, A01G 16/00
-Manipur is one of the eight states of Northeast India,
-bounded  by  Nagaland  in  the  North,  Mizoram  in  the
-South,  Assam  in  the West,  and  by  the  borders  of  the
-country Myanmar in the East as well as in the part of
-South. The state lies at latitude of 23°83’N - 25°68’N
-and  longitude  of  93°03’E  -  94°78’E.  The  total  area
-covered by the state is 22,327 km² with the population
-of  23,  88,  634.  The  major  crops  of  this  state  are
-wheat,  pulses,  paddy,  maize,  sugarcane,  potato  and
-mustard.   The   major   fruits   are   pineapple,   banana,
-papaya, passion fruit, orange, lemon and mango. The
-major vegetables are cabbage, cauliflower, pea, french
-bean  and  tomato.  The  major  forest  products  are  oak,
-teak,  pine,  cane,  bamboo,
-leihao
-and
-uningthou
-.  The
-major  export  products  are  bamboo  shoot  products
-ginger,  pineapple,  mushroom,  etc
-.  Glutinous  rice  is
-cultivated in the valley and inter-most river basins of
-the   hills.   Transplantation   methods   in   the   valley
-cultivations  led  to  substantial  growth  of  population
-with a distinct peasantry, associated with riverine and
-lacustrine village settlements.
-The  Government  of  Manipur  had  recognized  32
-different  tribes.  They  are:
-Animol,  Chothe,  Kacha
-Naga,   Kom,   Maring,   Paite,   Sema,   Tarao,   Anal,
-Gante, Kharem, Lamgang, Mao, Poumi Naga, Simte,
-Thadou,  Angami,  Hmar,  Koirao,  Luisai,  Mansang,
-Purum,   Sahlte,   Vaipei,   Chiru,   Kabui,   Koirangm,
-Maram,     Mayon,     Ralte,     Tangkhul     and     Jou.
-These   tribes   come   into   two   major   tribes,   i.e.   i)
-Naga
-:   The
-Naga
-tribe    comprises    the
-Maring
-,
-Mao,   Maram,   Kabui,   Tangkhul,   Tadubi,   Kolya,
-Khoiras/Mayangkhong, Koirangs, Chirus and Maring
-.
-They  occupy  the  Northern  and  North-western  hills
-of  Manipur.  The  staple  food  is  rice  which  is  cooked
-either  in  earthern  pot/metal  pot  or  in  bamboo  tube.
-Young  bamboo  shoots  are  collected  during  summer
-season  and  are  peeled,  dried  and  then  added  with
-rice  for  consumption.  ii)
-Kuki
-:  They  are  also  known
-as
-Khongois.
-They    occupy    the    South    western
-and  South  eastern  hills  and  is  wide  spread  in  the
-district of Churachandpur, Tangnoupal and Sadar hills
-in   the   northern   Manipur.   This   tribe   comprises
-the
-Mizos,  Paite,  Thadou  and  Vaiphei
-.  Rice  is  the
-staple  food  and  there  is  certain  restriction  in  the
-consumption  of  animal  flesh.  Rice  beer  (
-Yu
-)  is  the
-most important alcoholic beverages in all the festivals
-of  this  tribe
-.  Dried  fish  is  eaten  by  almost  all  the
-ethnic  groups.  All  type  of  domestic  animals  is  eaten
-except  cat.  They  also  eat  locusts,  dog,  all  kinds  of
-birds and frogs.
-——————
-*
- Corresponding author
-DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
-Meitei
-and
-Meitei  Pangals are  the  communities  of
-Manipur which does not belong to tribes. The
-meiteis
-are  distributed  in  the  main  valley  and  fish  is  the
-common  article  of  diet.  Rice  is  the  staple  food  and
-wheat  is  not  taken  in  the  form  of
-chappatti
-or
-roti
-.
-The   majorities   of
-Meitei   Pangals
-occupies   the
-Thoubal  district  and  follow  the  Islamic  way  of  life.
-The region as a whole provides an exotic mosaic, rich
-in the tapestry of colour, rhythm and movement
-. All
-the  ethnic  groups  living  in  the  hills  and  the  valley
-prefer  wild  plants/plant  parts  as  foods  to  introduce
-cultivate  plants.  Though  many  of  these  plants  are
-available,   nowadays   the   number   and   quality   of
-species are much less than past. Very few numbers of
-introduced  plants  are  replacing  this  vast  number  of
-wild plants.
-Different  tribes  have  their  own  traditional  foods
-and  beverages.  The  traditional  food  habits  of  tribal
-population of the state are very simple and have to do
-with the festival and rituals which forms a mosaic of
-ethnic  cultural  combinations
-.  Traditional  knowledge
-exists   among   different   tribes   on   preparing   boiled
-foods,  fermented  foods,  beverages  and  nutritionally
-rich  traditional  foods  from  various  indigenous  crop
-plants,   forest   products   and   meat   of   wild   and
-domesticated animals. These foods are part and parcel
-of  their  social  spectrum  of  life.  Traditional  foods  are
-not   only   rich   in   nutrients   but   also   have   certain
-curative    properties    against    many    diseases    and
-disorders
-.
-Meitei
-diet  has  been  influenced  by  many
-other  cultures  due  to  various  socio  political  reasons.
-Sanskritisation   is   one   of   the   biggest   factors   that
-influence  the  change  of  dietary  habit.  From  the  meat
-eater they became fish eater, and those who accepted
-the  Hinduism  to  its  extreme  even  gave  up  fish  and
-became  pure  vegetarian.  The
-Manipuris
-are  usually
-two  meals  eater, one in the  morning  and the  other in
-the  evening  /night.  Occasionally,  enjoy  taking
-Sinju
-vegetable  salad  with  fermented  fish  or  roasted  gram
-flour.    Alcoholic    beverages    of    different    tribal
-communities   have   received   attention   of   several
-ethnobotanists  and  anthropologists.  Introduction  of
-fast      foods      thorough      globalization      process,
-accompanied  by  decrease  in  the  use  of  traditional
-foods  of  local  tribe  has  resulted  in  many  diseases
-notably    diabetes,    heart    diseases,    and    anaemia
-particularly    to    pregnant    and    lactating    women
-.
-Though   the   new   generation   of   tribes   adopted   to
-modern   food   habits,   due   to   its   importance,   it   is
-imperative  to  document  the  traditional  food  products
-and     their     importance     among     different     tribal
-communities.
-Methodology
-The present study was conducted in Manipur state
-covering  all  the  districts.  Thirty  different  villages
-covering 200 different tribal people were conducted to
-make the final conclusion. The population is covered
-in  such  a  way  that  it  comprises  of  more  than  50%
-elders   as   they   practice   those   traditional   practices
-still   in   household.   The   response   of   all   sampled
-respondents   was   recorded.   A   questionnaire   after
-pretesting    and    thereafter    editing    by    amending,
-recording   errors   and   deleting   queries   that   were
-obviously   erroneous   was   filled   through   structured
-participatory  interviews  at  the  site  residence  of  rural
-people.  Secondary  information  was  collected  from
-district agriculture information centre, books, reports,
-and electronic and non- electronic sources. The use of
-multiple   sources   of   information   was   intended   to
-increase `construct validity of the case study in terms
-of seeking convergent lines of inquiry.
-Results and discussion
-Dietary pattern
-Staple  diet  of  the
-Manipuries
-is  rice  mixed  with
-Bora/Bada
-fried  or  roasted  peas  or  gram  or
-Kangou,
-the  fried  vegetable  and  pulse.  Rice  is  also  eaten
-with  seasonal  vegetables  cooked  with  smoked,  dried
-or   fermented   fish.   The
-meitei
-loves   it   mixed
-with   vegetable   chutney   (
-Iromba
-)/boiled   delicacy
-(
-Champhut   and   Kangshoi
-).   This   is   a   mixture   of
-various   boiled   vegetable   mashed   with   fermented
-fish   and   chillies.   Others   like
-Parkia
-roxburghii
-(
-Yongchak
-),     lotus     rhizome     (
-Thambou
-),     green
-Makhana (
-Thangjing
-), etc are
-Manipuries
-exclusives.
-The
-Meities
- eats more than hundred varieties of leafy
-vegetables.   They   learnt   a   very   special   art   of
-fermenting soyabean, bamboo shoots and fishes from
-time   immemorial.   They   make
-Hawaichar
-from
-soyabean,
-Soibum
-,
-Shoidon
-and
-Soijin
-from   the
-bamboo  shoots.
-Ngaree
-and
-Hentak
-are  made  from
-the  small  fishes.  Carefully  done  fermentation  is  very
-important for the safety reasons. Otherwise occasional
-food  poisoning  is  heard  from
-hawaichar
-and  mixed
-vegetable salad/chutney
-.
-Iromba
-an eclectic combination of fresh vegetables,
-bamboo     shoots,     fermented     fish     and     chillies.
-Heithongba
-is  a  pungent  dish  of  lemon,  sugar,  salt,
-aonla
-and tamarind.
-Maroi morok thongba
-, is another
-INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
-type of speciality.
-M
-orok
-stands for green chilli, as a
-result,  this  dish  is  bit  hot  in  taste.
-Madhurjan
-is  a
-sweet  made  of  milk,  sugar  and  gramflour.  A  black
-lentil   called
-Ooty
-is   compulsory   at   all   feasts.
-Vegetables consist of cauliflower/
-lai patha
-called
-Sak
-with  pumpkin  made  into a  hot  and  spicy  curry  along
-with  spinach  and  banana  inflorescence.  A  wonderful
-salad called
-Sinju
- made of finely shredded vegetables
-and  raw  papaya,  tossed  in  herbs.  A  dessert  made  of
-rice  called
-chak-hao
-is  deep  violet  in  colour  and  is
-combined  with  milk,  sugar,  coconut  and  dry  fruits.
-Suktani
-is a combination of neem leaves,
-basak
-leaves
-and  sugar.
-Sweet  Kabok is  made  up  of  molasses  and
-rice is a famous snack among the
-Manipuries
-.
-Preparation of some Traditional foods
-Soyabean products
-Hawaichar
-Hawaijar
-is  an  indigenous  traditional  fermented
-soyabean with characteristic flavour and stickiness. It
-is consumed commonly in the local diet as a low cost
-source of high protein food and plays an economical,
-social and cultural role in Manipur. There is intent to
-upgrade the status of
-Hawaijar in order to increase its
-marketability   and   profitability.   In   the   traditional
-method  of
-Hawaijar
-preparation,  medium  and  small
-sized  soyabean  (
-Glycine  max
-L.)  seeds  are  cleaned
-and  sorted. The  graded  soyabean  seeds  are  dipped in
-water where the water level should be twice than that
-of  the  seeds  and  leave  it  overnight.  The  seeds  are
-washed  properly  for  two  to  three  times  with  running
-water  which  is  followed  by  cooking  either  by  using
-pressure  cooker  or  by  conventional  methods.  The
-solid  portion,  i.e.  the  cooked  soybean  was  placed  in  a
-bamboo basket after draining off the water portion. The
-greasy  portion  is  washed  with  lukewarm  water  till  it
-becomes  non-greasy,  and  the  remaining  water  was
-drained off completely and the content is turned upside
-down  once  or  twice.  The  water  portion  is  said  to  be
-useful  in  washing  cloths  in  olden  times.  The  drained
-water  is  believed  to  help  in  curing  TB  and  also  good
-for  women.  Thrice  folded  cloth  is  placed  in  a  coarse
-bamboo basket.  A thick layer of
-Ficus hispida
-leaves,
-locally known as
-Asse heibong
-or banana (
-Musa
-spp.)
-leaves  are  placed  upon  it.  The  cooked  soyabeans  are
-placed  in  alternate  layers  above  that.  At  the  end,
-another cloth which is folded 2 to 3 times is placed and
-then the whole content is tied tightly with another cloth
-to make air tight. This should be placed under the sun
-during day times and near the fireplace at night in order
-to  let  the  fermentation  process  complete  properly  and
-also   to   avoid   maggots   damage.   The   fermented
-soyabean,  i.e.
-hawaichar
-is  ready  in  3  days  during
-summer  and  during  winter it  takes  5  days.  In  order  to
-add more flavour it was kept near the fireplace as long
-as   possible.   Ancient   time’s   rice   husks   were   used
-instead of cloth.
-Hawaichar
-can be eaten raw with salt
-and chilli or cooked, etc. The preparation of
-hawaichar
-by natural fermentation leads to variation in quality due
-to   varying   methodologies,   fermentation   time   and
-temperature   of   incubation.   The   fermentation   takes
-place under uncontrolled environmental conditions that
-often   leads   to   unsuccessful   fermentation   and   poor
-quality   products   which   might   be   due   to   native
-fermenting microflora
-.
-The  traditional
-hawaichar
-is  characterised  by  its
-alkalinity   (
-p
-H   8.0-8.2),   stickiness,   and   pungent
-odour.  The  preparation  of
-hawaichar
-is  very  simple,
-similar  to  that  of  Japanese
-Itohiki-Natto
-(the  whole
-soyabean   seed   is   used   for   fermentation)
-.   But   in
-Kinema
-(another  Indian  fermented  soyabean),  it  is
-dehulled and cracked into pieces before fermentation
-.
-Unlike
-Kinema
-there  is  no  addition  of  firewood  ash
-during
-hawaichar
-  production.  Microorganisms  were
-isolated   and  identified   in
-hawaichar
-by   molecular
-techniques  and  resulted  that  three  major  phylogenic
-group,  i.e.
-Bacillus
-group  comprising
-Bacillus  subtilis
-and
-Bacillus
-licheniformis,
-and
-Staphylococcus  spp.
-comprising
-Staphylococcus aureus
-and
-Staphylococcus
-sciuri
-are involved
-.
-Dried Hawaichar
-There are two types of dried
-hawaichar
-commonly
-prepared by the people of Manipur. The first method
-involves  the  common  technique  of  making
-hawaijar
-.
-After  one  week  of  preparation,  salt  is  mixed  along
-with  the
-hawaijar
-.  The  whole  content  is  poured  in  a
-bamboo (any bamboo with a longer internodes, bigger
-hole and thinner outer part) where it is sealed with the
-bamboo  leaves  and  tied  very  tightly  with  a  plastic
-sheet. This is then placed in top of the fire place in the
-kitchen  for  one  week.  The
-hawaijar
-obtained  from
-this has lesser smell and taste better. This can be kept
-for a  longer  period  of  time.  The  second  method is to
-dry  the  fermented  soyabean  i.e.
-hawaijar
-in  direct
-sunlight and make it moisture free.
-Pickled hawaijar
-This method is practiced recently by the people of
-Manipur. The fermented soyabean i.e. the
-hawaijar
-is
-DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
-fried  in  oil  along  with  some
-m
-asala
-and  add  a  pinch
-of  salt  to  taste.  This  is  then  filled  in  a  bottle  along
-with the excess oil and sealed. This can be stored for a
-longer period of time.
-Paknam
-Onion leaves, chilli, salt, half tablespoon of sodium
-bicarbonate,   turmeric,   spices,
-garam   masala
-and
-ngari
-are required for the preparation of
-paknam
-. All
-the  contents  are  smashed  properly  then  gram  flour  is
-added into it, which should be mixed thoroughly and
-placed  in  one  or  two  layers  of  turmeric  leaves.  The
-whole  content  is  baked  on  a  hot  pan  and  a  heavy
-weight  is  placed  upon.  After  30  to  45  minutes  it
-imparts  a  typical  flavour  which  indicates  the  product
-is  cooked.
-Paknam
-can  be stored  for  a  day  or  two  at
-the maximum.
-Tree   mushroom
-paknam
-can   also   be   prepared
-where all the  ingredients  are the  same  except  that  no
-besan
-and   sodium   bicarbonate  is   added   and   tree
-mushroom  is  added  along  with  the  other  ingredients.
-Nganam  paknam
-is  another  kind  of
-paknam
-where
-small fishes are used while preparing the
-paknam
-. In
-this  case  also,  no
-besan
-(gram  flour)  and  sodium
-bicarbonate is added while small amount of asafoetida
-and cut green chillies are added.
-Chagem Pomba
-Cucumber,  carrot  leaf,  squash  and  its  leaves,  etc
-are taken and then broken rice is added to it of about
-gm Some other vegetables which are cut into small
-pieces  can  also  be  added.  The  contents  are  fried  in
-mustard  oil,  but  stirring  with  spoon  is  restricted.  All
-the spices are added and a small amount of asafoetida
-to  it  and  kept  it  for  at  least  2  whistles  in  pressure
-cooker. Fennel (
-Foeniculum vulgare
-) was added when
-almost cooked, instead of coriander in it.
-Sea food based products
-Ngari
-For  the  preparation  of
-ngari
-(fermented  fish),  a
-typical small type of fish locally called as
-phabou nga
-is used. Daily meal of
-Manipuries
-is never completed
-without
-ngari
-,  which  is  eaten  either  in  the  form  of
-chutney (
-iromba or morok metpa
-) or as an ingredient
-in    other    curries.    The
-phabou    nga
-is    washed
-thoroughly  with  water  and  sundried  properly  till  it
-becomes  crispy.  Crushing  of  the  fish  head  should  be
-done  properly  with  the  help  of  a  hammer.  A  special
-vessel  is  used  for  the  preparation  of
-ngari
-,  where
-mustard oil is plastered, the dried fish is then stacked
-in proper order. The container is closed air tight after
-filling. In order to make it air tight, sand is placed on
-the top and fermentation is allow to occur naturally. It
-takes about 3 to 6 months to mature and ready to eat.
-It imparts a typical odour which indicates that the fish
-is well fermented and ready for eating.
-Kangshu
-Kangshu
-is  another  typical  traditional  food  which
-is  eaten  by  the
-Manipuries
-.
-Centella  asiatica
-(Indian
-pennyworth) is cooked in a pressure cooker up to two
-whistles  after  washing  with  water  for  the  preparation
-of
-kangshu
-.  Product  is  cut  into  small  pieces  after
-draining  the  excess  water.
-Morok  metpa
-(mixture  of
-ngari
-,  chilli  and  salt)  is  added  in  it  and  is  mixed
-thoroughly.  To  add  flavour  roasted  prawn  or  fish  is
-added  and  finally  coriander  is  added.
-Kangshu
-can
-also  be  prepared  by  using  bamboo  shoots  instead  of
-Centella asiatica
-. In this case, the bamboo shoots are
-cut  into  pieces  after  washing  with  running  water  and
-kept  it  overnight,  and  then  the  next  day  it  is  again
-washed  and  cooked  in  a  pressure  cooker.  Thereafter
-the  same  procedure  is  followed  as  in  case  of  the
-above.
-Hentak
-Hentak
-was  used  by  the
-Manipuries
-before
-ngari
-came  into  existence.
-Phabou  nga
-or
-ngakha
-is  used
-for
-hentak
-preparation,.  This  fish  are  sun  dried  after
-thorough washing till the moisture content in the fish
-is  the  lowest.  It  is  then  crushed  into  powder  form.
-Wild
-colocasia
-stem  is  crushed  after  washing  and
-cutting   into   pieces.   The   powdered   fish   and   the
-crushed  wild
-colocasia
-stem  are  mixed  properly  and
-are  rolled  in  round  form  and  stored  in  a  container,
-then after 3 days it is again crushed with the help of a
-pestle  and  mortar.  This  crushing  is  done  at  a  regular
-interval  if  to  be  stored  for  a  longer  period  of  time.
-Instead of
-colocasia
-stem, onion can also be used but
-hentak
-made out of it can not be stored for long.
-Khazing
-It is the small sized prawn which is available in the
-Loktak  lake
-of  Manipur.
-Khazing
-is  available  in  the
-market  as  dried  form  or  is  consumed  in  fresh  form.
-When  it  is  thoroughly  dried,  it  is  used  in  making
-curries.  Dried
-Khazing
-has  a  very  long  shelf  life.  In
-other  way,  the  freshly  catch
-Khazing
-is  fried  along
-with mint leaves (
-Mentha arvensis
-).
-Heikak
-Heikak
-is a hydrophilic plant and the fruit is black
-in  colour  and  irregular  in  shape  is  consumed  by
-INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
-almost  all  the  people  of  Manipur.  It  is  consumed  by
-e
-ither boiling it in water or by converting it into flour
-and used for preparing
-chapatti
-.
-Sticky rice chapatti/bread
-This  kind  of
-chapatti
-or  bread  is  prepared  during
-the   festivals   like
-Gan-ngai   or   Lui-ngai   ni
-or
-Christmas  by  the  youths.  The  required  amount  of
-sticky  rice  is  soaked  for  3-4  hrs  in  plain  water  then
-sun drying is carried out on a bamboo tray known as
-yankok
-locally.  When  it  is  dried  completely  with  the
-least moisture in it, grinding is done in a mortar till it
-becomes  powder.  The  coarser  part  is  removed  with
-the  help  of  a  sieve  and  ground  again.  In  another
-container  sugar  solution  is  prepared,  the  amount  of
-sugar  depends  upon  the  desired  taste  of  the  person.
-Now, the rice flour is mixed with the sugar syrup and
-chapatti
-is  prepared.
-Bread  can  be  prepared  in  two
-different methods, i.e.
-Boiled  method:
-In  this  method,  the  mixture  of
-rice flour with the sugar syrup is made very hard
-and  round  in  shape  which  is  then  wrapped  with
-cardamom  leaves  and  tied  properly.  In  another
-container water is boiled and the above content is
-poured  and  cooking  is  carried  out  for  an  hour.
-This  kind  of  bread  can  be kept  for  one  week  but
-gets hard if kept for long so, the cardamom leaves
-are removed and the content is fried in oil.
-Fried method:
-The mixture of rice flour with the
-sugar syrup is made softer by adding more water
-and  made  to  round  shape.  A  small  amount  of
-edible oil is also added in it. Then in the fire place
-some  charcoal  is  removed  just  near  by  and  the
-content  is  put  on  top  of  it.  When  this  becomes
-black  in  colour,  it  is  turned  upside  down  so  that
-the  other  part  also  becomes  black.  The  upper
-black portion is scraped out and the remaining is
-used  for  consumption.  This  method  is  the  oldest
-form   of   making   bread   by   the   hill   people   of
-Manipur.
-The
-Tangkhul
-people  of  Manipur  prepare  another
-special kind of
-chapatti
-from
-sesame. In this method,
-the mixture of rice flour with water is made very hard
-and  even  coarser  part  of  the  rice  flour  can  also  be
-used. No additional items are added with it, not even
-salt. Then similar to the fry method, some charcoal is
-removed just near by and the content is put on top of
-it  near  the  fire.  In  a  mortar,  raw  sesame  is  ground
-where  a  small  amount  of  water  is  sprinkled  in  it  and
-salt  is  added  to  taste.  When  oil  started  coming  out
-from  the  sesame  the  above  content  is  added  and
-ground  along  with  it.  But  if  excess  amount  of  oil
-comes  out  then  it  is  removed  manually.  The  mixture
-can be used in preparation of
-chapatti
-.
-Bamboo based products
-In Manipur bamboo forest covers an area of around
-  sq  Km.  The  most  commonly  available  bamboo
-species      are
-Bambusa      aurndinaca      (saneibi),
-Bambusa pallida (Kal-sundi), Bambusa nana (Khok),
-Dendrocalamus  giganteus  (meiribob),  Dendrocalamus
-flagellifer   (Longa   wa),   Dendrocalamus   hamiltonii
-(Wanap/unap/pecha),  Dendrocalamus  sericeus(Ooii)
-and
-Melocana bambusoides (Moubi/muli), Teinostachyum
-dulooa      (Dulu),      Teinostachyum      wightii(Nath),
-Bambusa  tulda  (Utang).
-About  20-30  MT  bamboo
-shoots  are  consumed  annually  for  the  production  of
-canned  bamboo-shoots.  Canning  is  done  either  in
-brine  or  in  syrup.  Export  of  these  canned  bamboo
-shoots are done in Japan, Singapore, China, Thailand,
-Hong  kong  and  UK  The  chemical  constitution  of  a
-raw  bamboo  shoot  in  percentage  are;  moisture,  88.8;
-protein,  3.90;  fat,  0.5;  minerals,  1.10;  carbohydrate,
-.70  and  calorific  value,  43  Kcal.  Some  important
-products made from bamboo are:
-Soibum.
-Tender  bamboo  shoots  are  collected  and
-cleaned, outer sheaths should be removed. Only inner
-white  portion  is  used  for  fermentation.  There  are
-many  ways  for  the  preparation  of  fermented  bamboo
-shoot, i.e.
-Inside  a  pit:
-In  this  method,  a  pit  is  dug  and  a
-basket made by using bamboo of the shape of the
-pit  is  placed  into  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to
-slightly inclined the bamboo basket while placing
-so as to allow the flow of the water produced by
-the   bamboo   shoots   during   fermentation.   Wild
-colocasia
-leaves is put in and around the pit in a
-thick  layer  of  about  2-3  inch,  then  the  bamboo
-shoots are made into longitudinal shreds and kept
-in  air  tight  condition.  The  fermented  bamboo
-shoot is ready for sale or for making curry within
-  to  5  days.  These  fermented  bamboo  shoots  are
-locally  known  as
-soibum
-(Fig.  1).  The  water
-collected  from  this  can  also  be  preserved  and  is
-used again in new fermentation of bamboo shoots.
-Now  a  day,  instead  of  wild
-colocasia
-leaves,
-plastic  sheets  are  used,  provided  holes  are  made
-in  the  bottom  to  allow  drainage  of  water.  This
-kind of fermented bamboo shoots can be kept for
-a longer period of time i.e. for one month or more
-DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
-if  kept  air  tight.  The  degree  of  sourness  shows  a
-r
-apid  increase  in  the  initial  stage  of  fermentation
-but as it reaches a peak point at about 7-10 days,
-it started decreasing. These methods of preparing
-fermented  bamboo  shoots  are  followed  in  almost
-all the hill districts of Manipur. Bamboo varieties
-such as
-Sanaibi, Nath, Unal, Longa wa, Meiribob,
-Ooii,
-etc are used for this purpose. Care should be
-taken  to  avoid  varieties  such  as
-Utang
-and
-Knok
-as   they   are   not   edible
-.
-Sanaibi
-is   the   best
-bamboo    shoot    variety    for    preparation    of
-fermented  bamboo  shoots,  which  is  followed  by
-nath
-variety. But
-Unal
-variety gives better texture
-and appearance.
-In   an   earthen   pot
-  :
-This   method   of   the
-fermentation  of  bamboo  shoot  is  the  same  as
-said  above,  the  only  difference  is  that  instead  of
-fermenting   the   bamboo   shoots   inside   a   pit,
-an  earthen  pot  is  used  where  a  hole  is  made  at
-the   bottom   for   the   drainage   of   excess   water
-during  fermentation.  During  fermentation  in  an
-earthen  pot  some  people  prefer  to  add
-Heibung
-for  enhancing  the  fermentation  and  also  for  a
-sourer taste.
-In   open   condition:
-In   open   condition,   wild
-colocasia
-leaves  are  used  in  thick  layers.  The
-sliced  bamboo  shoots  are placed  on top  of it and
-are again covered with these leaves. Fermentation
-is  allowed  to  take  place  in  this  way.  No  other
-addition is done in this method.
-Dipping  in  water:
-For  this  method  a  special
-bamboo variety is used i.e.
-nath
-variety. Locally it
-is   called
-nath   ki   soibum.
-This   method   is
-commonly   used   by   the   people   of   Bishempur
-district  of  Manipur.  As  the
-nath
-bamboo  is  very
-small and long, it is sliced longitudinally as whole
-for  about  2-3  cm  and  it  is  placed  in  a  container
-(plastic   buckets   are   generally   employed   these
-days)  where  water  is  poured  just  to  dipped  the
-contains.  It  is  covered  and  kept  till  sale.  The
-fermented  bamboo  shoots  are  ready  to  sale  after
-  days.
-Nath
-variety  gives  very  tasty  fermented
-bamboo shoots but it can’t be stored for a longer
-duration of time.
-Dried
-Usoi
-(bamboo  shoot):
-For  this  purpose
-any bamboo shoot variety which is edible is used.
-All  the  bamboo  shoots  are  sliced  to  small  pieces
-and is boiled with water then drying in a bamboo
-tray under the sun is carried out after draining off
-the  excess  water.  This  dried  bamboo  shoots  are
-packed in plastic sheets and used in off season or
-is send for sale
-.
-Dried
-soibum
-(fermented  bamboo  shoots):
-In
-this   method,   after   the   completion   of   normal
-fermentation of the bamboo shoots, they are dried
-either under the sun or in top of the fire. For this
-method  the  Tankhul  people  of  Manipur  uses  a
-special  type  of  bamboo  shoots  variety  which  is
-very small and long, locally known as
-ngathan
-. It
-gives  a  twisted  appearance  after  drying  just  like
-noodles.
-Fermented bamboo shoot Pickle:
-The
-soibum
-in
-general (fermented or dried) are consumed by all
-the  people  of  Manipur  devoid  of  any  caste  or
-tribe.  It  is  eaten  as  raw  with  fermented  fish  or
-boiled and cooked form with any  meat or fish or
-vegetables.  It  forms  an  important  food  part  in all
-the    festivals    observed    by    the
-Manipuries
-.
-Nowadays,  in  some  small  scale  industries  the
-bamboo  shoots  are  blanched  after  slicing  into
-small  pieces  in  hot  water  to  reduce  its  enzyme
-activity   and   are   treated   with   KMS   (1%)   for
-min. After which it is sun dried and packed in
-an air tight container and is send for sale.
-Alcoholic beverages
-The  commonly  consumed  alcoholic  beverage  in
+So rather than pursue all four at the same time, Modi's team decided to prioritise their moves, putting the NSG and MTCR membership at the top of the list. On NSG, among their concerns was that while in 2008 the UPA-I government had claimed that the NSG had given it a "clean waiver", that status was altered three years later when UPA-II was in power. In 2011, the NSG revised and updated its guidelines for all members to prohibit trade in enrichment and reprocessing technology with any country that had not signed the NPT. Since India had refused to sign the NPT since its inception in 1968, calling it "unfair and discriminatory", the amendment was clearly targeted at Delhi.
-Manipur is prepared from rice. It is commonly known
-as
-Yu
-.  In  this  case,  any  kind  of  rice  is  used  for  the
-preparation  of  alcoholic  beverage  but  the
-Tankhul
-tribe  used  only  sticky  rice.  In  some  of  the  alcoholic
-beverages   yeast   is   required   for   conducting   the
-fermentation. This is prepared as described below.
-Preparation of yeast (
-Hamei
-)
-The quality of rice beer is partially depending upon
+After India protested, the US, Russia and France issued statements that they stood by their agreements to provide India "full nuclear fuel cycle" cooperation irrespective of the NSG guidelines. But as an official points out, "It should have been a wake-up call for the then policymakers that the NSG could alter its rules and we would be forced to adhere to it. It was imperative that we move into the living room where decisions were being made rather than wait in the verandah and be told what we can or cannot do."
-the  quality  of  yeast  used.  It  is  otherwise  called  as
-Hamei
-by
-Kabui
-tribes  and
-Chamri
-by  the
-Tankhul
-tribes.  For  preparation  of
-Hamei
-,  finely  grinded  rice
-powder,  where  the  rice  was  previously  soaked  in
-water  for  2-3  hrs  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  bark
-powders of
-Yanglei
-(Fig. 2).
-The  mixture  is  kept  in  large  vessel  and  water  is
+==WHY COULDN'T THE UPA-II DO IT?==
-added slowly till the mixture made into paste with the
-required consistency. The paste is then spread on the
-bamboo mat/banana leaves and made into small cubes
-or  tablet form.  The  prepared  tablets are  sun  dried till
-the material is completely dried.
-Hamei
-can be stored
-in  cool,  dry  place  for  over  a  year.  For  1  kg  rice,
-around  8-10  gm
-Yanglei
-is  added.  Three  different
-kinds of alcoholic beverages are consumed. They are:
-INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
-a)
-Y
-u  angouba:
-For  the  preparation  of
-yu  angouba
-the  rice  is  soaked  in  water  for  around  2-3  hrs
-along with some germinated paddy. For 1 Kg rice
-around  100gm  germinated  paddy  is  added.  After
-this,  the  water  is  drained  out  and  the  soaked  rice
-is  crushed  with  the  help  of  a  mortar  till  powder
-form. In another vessel water is boiled and in this
-boiled   water   the   crushed   rice   is   added   with
-continuous  stirring  till  it  gets  cooled  then  it  is
-covered  by  a  muslin  cloth  and  kept  for  2-3  days
-without  any  disturbance.  Within  these  days  form
-started  coming  out  and  a  typical  flavour  and
-odour is released. This indicates that
-yu angouba
-is  now  ready  to  consume.  The
-Tankhul
-tribe  of
-Manipur uses  a typical  pot  which is  of  the  shape
-of a conical flask, so after pouring the content it is
-sealed  with  cow  dung  and  ashes  mixture.  This
-tribe   uses   only   paddy   and   not   rice   for   the
-preparation  of
-yu  angouba
-,  and  it  is  known  as
-Khor
-in their local dialect
-.
-Yu angouba
-can’t be
-stored for a longer period of time. It can be stored
-for a maximum of 7 days.  This kind of alcoholic
-beverage if consumed within 2-3 days then is said
-to  be  beneficial  for  our  body,  it  is  compared  to
-drinking of milk but in a limited quantity i.e. 500
-ml at the maximum.
-b)
-Atingba:
-In this type of alcoholic beverage rice is
-cooked and spread in a container or in a tray made
-of  bamboo.
-Hamei
-is  mixed  properly  along  with
-the cooked rice. The whole content is transferred
-in a vessel then a little amount of water is poured
-just to dip it. Then cover with a muslin cloth. Heat
-is  released  for  2-3  days
-.  After  which  water  is
-again poured to ease the heat.
-Atingba
-is ready to
-drink  after  6-8  hrs  of  pouring  the  water  but  this
-will  give  a  very  light  drink.  A  proper
-Atingba
-is
-formed  after  4-5  days  of  fermentation  during
-summer  and  after  7-8  days  in  winter.  This  kind
-of  alcoholic  beverage  can  be  consumed  for  only
--2  days  after  fermentation  but  can  be  kept  for
-around 1-2 months which is used for preparing
-Yu
-.
-The
-tankhul
-tribe calls this type of wine as
-Patso
-.
-c
-)
-Y
-u:
-Yu
-in kabui or
-Acham
-in tankhul is prepared
-from
-Atingba
-.   This
-Atingba
-is   poured   in   an
-aluminum pot and is cooked in low flame. Above
-to this pot an aluminum funnel is placed and from
-this a pipe is connected to the otter part of the pot.
-This  pipe  is  used  for  collecting
-yu
-.  The  pot  is
-covered tightly with an aluminum plate. On top of
-this  another  aluminum  pot  is  placed  containing
-cold  water.  All  the  connecting  points  are  sealed
-properly    with    cow    dung    paste.    Distillation
-continuous  until  all  the  alcohol  present  in  the
-content is  out.  This can  be  checked  by  dipping  a
-small  stick  into  the  boiling
-Atingba
-and  lit  it,  if
-produce  green  flame  than  it  indicates  that  the
-alcohol  content  is  more
-   ,15
-.  So,  based  on  this
-technique  the  distillation  process  is  continued.
-The  remaining  content  after  the  extraction  of
-yu
-is  used  as  pig  feed.  This  type  of  alcoholic
-beverage  is  very  hard  as  compared  to  the  others
-stated above (Fig. 3).
-Figs.1—3: (1)Street vendor selling
-S
-oibum
-in local market, (2) Yeast tablets and (3) Traditional preparation of
-Yu
-DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
-Another  kind  of  alcoholic  beverage  prepared  from
-ba
-nana is commonly consumed by the
-naga
-tribes of
-Manipur  known  as  Banana  wine;  this  is  prepared  by
-fermenting the ripe banana in a closed container with
-a  little  amount  of  water
-.  No  inoculum  is  added  for
-conducting  the  fermentation.  The  wine  is  ready  to
-drink  after  3  days  and  is  advisable  to  consume  it
-within 1 or 2 days after opening the cover.
-==Conclusion==
+Modi was advised to pull out all stops to get NSG membership. For that, Obama had to fulfil his commitment and get the US administration to do the heavy lifting as they did in 2008. Given the preoccupations of the UPA-II in the final years of its reign, Indo-US relations had experienced a drift. Shedding any personal hurt he harboured against the US for denying him a visa since the 2002 Gujarat riots, Modi brought the mojo back into Indo-US relations by quickly establishing a personal rapport with Obama in his first meeting with him in September 2014. Modi hardsold his regime as more open to do business with. American companies told him that they had hoped that after the Indo-US nuclear deal they could sell nuclear plants to India, making the deal a win-win for both countries. But their efforts were stymied because of the problems posed by the new Indian nuclear liability law that was passed by Parliament in 2010.
-The  society,  culture,  traditions,  ethics  and  food
-habit of any community cannot be seen in the isolated
-mode  as  they  are  all  intermingled  and  much  more
-complex. The ecology provides a range of probability
-to select the plant and animal sources, culture decides
-the  tradition  and  the  ethics  determines  the  habit  of
-eating the food. The traditions maintained by various
-communities  of
-Manipuries
-are  having  strong  ethical
-issues.   The   advent   of   modern   civilization   has
-adversely   affected   the   tradition   and   heritage   of
-community   and   thus   the   younger   generations   are
-not  exposed  to  traditional  practices.  There  should
-be   focused   efforts   to   promote   traditional   food
-systems  within  rural  communities.  Rewarding  and
-acknowledging    young    people    who    demonstrate
-interest  and  awareness  in  the  health  of  environment
-and  in  their  traditional  foods  would  also  raise  the
-profile  of  these  issues.  Traditional  foods,  community
-dinners  can  also  provide  opportunities  to  promote
-food  products  and  knowledge  about  ethnic  foods.  In
-future, the nutritional and microbial aspects of various
-traditional foods are needed to be analyzed.
-==Acknowledgement==
-We  heartily  thank  to  all  the  tribal  people  who
-shared their traditional knowledge with the authors to
-compile this manuscript. The financial help offered to
-conduct  this  survey  by  GOI  from  CSS  Horticulture
-mission is also highly acknowledged.
-References
-Haokip  &  Ngamthang,  Basic  Delineation  Map  of  Manipur,
-Profile    on    state    of    environment    report    of    Manipur,
-(Ministry of Environment and Forests, Manipur), 2006-07, 4-9.
-Census  Population,
-Census  of  India
-,  (Ministry  of  Finance
-India), 2001, 12-18.
-Bareh   HM,
-Encyclopaedia   of   NE   India   1.   Arunachal
-Pradesh
-, (Mittal Publication, New Delhi), 2001, 2-233.
-Singh  RK  &  Sureja  AK,  Centurion  women  and  diverse
-knowledge  systems,
-Indian  J  Tradit  Knowle,
-  (3)  (2006)
--419.
-Mao  AA  &  Odyou  M,  Traditional  fermented  foods  of  the
-Naga tribes of North-eastern India,
-Indian J Tradit Knowle,
-(1) (2007) 37-41.
-http://www.manipur.webs/
-Singh  NR,
-Dietary  pattern:  Edible  wild  plants  of  Manipur,
-(ADAM Publications), 2003, 7-9.
-Tamang JP, Ethnic fermented foods of the eastern Himalayas,
-In:
-nd
-International  conference  on  fermented  foods,  health
+When he returned from the US, Modi convened a team of the external affairs, finance and law ministries to overcome the problem. India's new liability law had put the onus of any failure of a nuclear plant on the manufacturers, including payment of heavy compensation. The US saw red, as did Russia and France, who were also negotiating to set up new nuclear power reactors in India. They pointed out that it didn't conform to existing international norms on liability. Even private domestic nuclear plant manufacturers were dissuaded by the new law. So Modi's team worked to find a way to overcome the vexatious liability clause without amending the law. The government did that by setting up a special Indian Nuclear Insurance Pool of Rs 1,500 crore in July 2015 that took care of the liability concerns of both foreign and domestic nuclear plant suppliers.
-status   and   social   wellbeing
-,  SASNET,   Dec   17-18,   2005,
+There were two other issues with the US that Modi addressed. Under the Indo-US nuclear deal, India had agreed to designate civilian and military nuclear power plants and put the civilian ones under safeguards. In December 2014, India complied by putting the two remaining civilian plants that had been identified under IAEA safeguards. Then to demonstrate proof of its commitment to non-proliferation in January 2015, India joined an expert group to discuss how to move the stalled UN-sponsored Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) negotiations in Geneva forward.
-(Anand Agricultural University, Anand), India, 235.
+==WHY THE URGENCY TO GET NSG MEMBERSHIP NOW?==
-Ohta T,
-Natto
+"It was not a summer madness," as a senior MEA official put it. The quest for NSG membership became urgent because of two major but unrelated reasons: the Paris climate change summit and the fact that Obama's presidency would end in December 2016. At the climate change summit in November 2015, India was initially regarded as the problem as it was refusing to commit to reduction in its reliance on fossil fuel like coal for energy. Modi boldly turned the tables and made India a part of the solution. Instead of dragging his feet, Modi proactively committed that by 2030, India would raise the share of clean energy from non-fossil fuels to 40 per cent of the total. He then outlined an international solar alliance to evolve cheaper and more efficient technology to harness solar energy.
-, In:
-Legume-based fermented foods
+Yet more than solar energy, Modi and his team were calculating that the massive increase in nuclear power would enable India to meet the targets. Nuclear power now generates around 6,000 MW and constitutes only three per cent of India's total power. Modi had outlined an aggressive plan to ramp up nuclear power generation to 63,000 MW by 2032, pushing its share of the total to 9 per cent. So apart from sanctioning 16 new domestic power plants that would generate an additional 10,600 MW, the Modi government planned to enter into tie-ups with foreign companies from the US, Russia and France for 26 new power plants that would generate 29,500 MW.
-, edited by
-NR  Reddy,  MD  Pierson,  &  DK  Salunkhe,  (CRC  Press,
+To fulfil such an ambitious target, both Indian and foreign companies needed finance and technological tie-ups. For that, international investors required stability in policy as well as to ensure that there was no change in the rules of the game. Large players in the nuclear business like Europe, Korea and Japan said they would be more comfortable if India became a member-it would be easier to make investment commitments. Membership of the NSG had become a necessity for India. "NSG membership was like the triple AAA rating for investors", as an official put it. Also, by linking its climate change goals to NSG membership, India was putting additional pressure on major countries to push its case.
-Florida), 1986, 85-95.
+Meanwhile, Indian policymakers watched with increasing concern, the race for the next US presidency. Against all odds, the maverick Donald Trump, with his bellicose statements and charges against all and sundry, was gaining ground and would go on to win the Republican nomination. Meanwhile, Hillary Clinton struggled to beat her rival Bernie Sanders for the Democrats' nomination. All this added to India's uncertainty. Rather than wait for the next president, Modi and his team decided they should push through India's bid this year itself while Obama was still at the helm. After all, he had promised to secure India's NSG membership. "In a way, we had no choice, events forced the timing-we had to go the NSG plenary in June," says an official.
-Sarkar  PK,  Tamang  JP,  Cook  PE  &  Owens  JD,
-Kinema
+==DID INDIA DO ITS HOMEWORK BEFORE APPLYING?==
--a
-traditional  soybean  fermented  food:  proximate  composition
+In October 2015, when Ambassador Rafael Marianno Grossi of Argentina, then chair of NSG, came for his annual review, India sought his advice on how best to apply for membership. Grossi advised that before making a formal application they should talk to members and check out the concerns they may raise and then make a formal presentation to them about how India was addressing the issues they raised.
-and microflora,
-Food Microbiol
+In April this year, when the NSG Consultation Group was to meet in Vienna, India wrote a letter to all members requesting that it be permitted to make a presentation. When the NSG met, China stiffly opposed such a move, stating, there is "no consensus on India's membership, so no presentation." An Indian official present described it as a "Catch 22 situation-we can't start the process till we have a consensus, and we can't work for a consensus till we have a process". However, Australia bypassed the Chinese protest by hosting an event on the margins and India presented its case.
-, 11(1994) 47-55.
+Jaishankar after signing India's accession to the MTCR in Delhi on June 27. Photo: PTI
-Jeyaram K, Singh WM, Premarani T, Devi AR & Chanu KS,
-Talukdar  NC  &  Singh  MR,  Molecular  diversification  of
+When the MEA team returned to Delhi, they did a reality check as to where the 48 members stood. In their assessment they had 24 yea-sayers, while many others were either quiet or wanted some criteria for membership. Only a handful appeared opposed to the idea. If India's bid had to be taken seriously, it needed more than just a simple majority. Decisions in the NSG are taken by consensus and even one dissenting member could block a resolution. So the MEA deployed secretary-level officers as envoys to go and brief all the NSG members.
-dominant  microflora  associated  with
-Hawaijar
+It was also decided that Sushma Swaraj, the Union minister for external affairs, and the prime minister would be requested to speak to select ministers and heads of state. By the end of the process, Swaraj had personally called her counterparts in 26 countries. And the prime minister had spoken to 12 heads of states in addition to making it a point to include in his travel plans countries like Ireland, Switzerland and Mexico where he made a personal request to back India's NSG bid. Answering criticism as to why Modi had raised the pitch, an official defended his action, saying, "It is unfair to say the PM was making a huge show for publicity-in his mind he was willing to go the extra distance for the good of the country."
--  a  traditional
-fermented soybean (
+On May 10, Jaishankar formally presented to Grossi, the NSG chair, India's 300-page application seeking admission into the NSG and requested that it be considered at the annual plenary meeting to be held in Seoul from June 20-24. A fortnight later, Pakistan also put in a formal application for admission into the NSG. It was evident that Pakistan had China's backing. But as compared to India, Pakistan had no credentials to show that it was a responsible member of the nuclear fraternity. Its top nuclear scientist, A.Q. Khan, had been charged with selling nuclear secrets to North Korea and Iran. Unlike India, it had not separated its civilian reactors from military ones or adhered to various key protocols the IAEA had mandated. Pakistan's application to the NSG was seen by the rest of the members as China's effort to either block India's chances or to push Pakistan through by hyphenating it with India's application. India knew it had a big fight on its hands.
-Glycine max L.
-) food of Manipur, India,
+==WHY 2016 WAS DIFFERENT FROM THE 2008 NSG SUCCESS?==
-Int J Food Microbiol
-, 122 (2008) 259-268.
+The Modi government has been criticised for the "ham-handed" way it handled the NSG membership bid, and it is now being contrasted with the way Manmohan Singh and his team went about "quietly" winning support. It is not as if there was no hype or hoopla around the UPA-I bid to secure a waiver. There was stiff opposition from the coalition partners that finally saw the Left break away, accusing the prime minister of being a pawn of the US.
-Manihar  Singh  A,
+China had opposed India then too but not as overtly as it is doing now. In 2008, China told India privately that it would not oppose India's waiver if India got the support of all the other members. What tilted the balance was when George Bush called up Hu Jintao and requested him to back India. The Chinese smarted at the call but went along with the consensus.
-History  of  Manipuri  Literature
-,  (New
+What has changed since 2008 for China? China in 2016, for one, is a vastly different beast. Since taking over from Hu in 2013, Xi Jinping has outlined a far more robust foreign policy. Gone is the caution that defined the Hu era. This is most evident in China's ties with the US. A central theme of Xi's diplomacy is "building a new type of great power relations" with the US, which implies, even if not explicitly, that China now sees both countries as equals in a league of their own. Beijing is ready to stand up to the US in ways it wasn't quite prepared to do earlier, and the US no longer has the leverage with China it once had-a transformation Delhi needed to appreciate.
-Delhi: Sahitya Akademi), 1966, 12.
+For many in China, the pressure from Washington in 2008 to allow the exception for India at the NSG still rankles. "For the waiver in 2008, the US worked very hard and finally succeeded in getting India treated as an exceptional case. Would that work today? I am not sure," Zhao Gancheng, a senior strategic expert and director of South Asia Studies at the Shanghai Institute for International Studies, told india today. The Indian team was conscious of the new international realities and in 2016 did a lot of the heavy lifting by itself rather than as one official put it, "outsourcing it to America". Also, they were aware that they had to confront a far more aggressive China which if still not able to shape the international order was strong enough to be what an expert called "a blocking power".
-Hijam  Irabot,
-Imagi  Pujah,  Imphal,
+The other big shift in China's diplomacy is that Beijing appears to have gone all-in when it comes to its "all-weather" ally, Pakistan. Gone is the attempt-or pretence, some would argue-of seeking a balance in ties with India. In Beijing, Pakistan is increasingly described as China's only ally. Over the past few years, coinciding with Xi's rise, Chinese state media have taken to referring to Pakistan as "ba tie", or "iron brother".
-  (Irabot  Leirak  Phonba
-Lup), 2005, 12-17.
+Xi has made an economic corridor to Pakistan a central feature of his pet Silk Road initiative, planning roads and energy projects in a corridor that runs through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir despite India's protestations. What is worrying for India is that perhaps for the first time in more than a decade, China's policies are being shaped by Pakistani considerations. "The irony is," one senior diplomat put it, "they are re-hyphenating us with Pakistan at a time when we have finally de-hyphenated China and Pakistan." This was also evident in the NSG.
-http://www.kanglaonline.com
+To secure China's support, President Pranab Mukherjee was asked to request Xi's cooperation when he met him during his visit in the last week of May. Jaishankar, who accompanied him, also spoke to his Chinese counterpart and the foreign minister. It is learnt that China conveyed the message that "we may not be open about an NSG membership for India but we are not closed either". The foreign secretary then made a secret visit to Beijing, days before the NSG was to meet in Seoul, something india today was the first to reveal. It is learnt that China told Jaishankar, "We are prepared to look at accommodating India. But it can't only be about India in the long run." China was clear: We are willing to let you in but you should not come in the way of Pakistan's entry. China's concern was that once India was in the NSG, it would block Pakistan's chances.
- Chatradhari  S  &  Irabot  H,  (Soyam  Publication.  Imphal).
+For India, this was the opening it was looking for. Modi's team was confident that if criteria were laid down for entry into the NSG, India was in an excellent position to qualify. They were also aware that Pakistan, with its poor track record stood little chance of gaining entry until it cleaned up its act. Moreover, as some nations pointed out, it was better to check Pakistan's nuclear ambitions by dangling the NSG membership as a carrot.
-, 23-34
+So it was a confident Swaraj who, in her annual press conference in Delhi a day before the NSG met at Seoul, asserted "China is not blocking India's entry to the NSG. It is only talking about criteria and procedures. I am hopeful that we would be able to convince China to support our entry to the NSG." As far as the Pakistan application was concerned, she said, India being a non-member has no comment, but clarified that "we will not oppose entry of any nation to NSG" and "each country should be considered on the basis of their merit.
-Lokendrajit  S,
-Irabot  Ki  Seireng,  Ritu
+==CHINA: FROM LINKAGE TO BLOCKAGE==
-,  (Manipur  Sahitya
-Parishad. Imphal), 1997, 9 -1
+When Jaishankar and Amandeep Singh Gill, the MEA joint secretary in charge of nuclear affairs, flew in to Seoul for the NSG plenary, they were confident that if China kept its word India would be through. But they were not taking any chances. They divided the NSG members into five groups: the core group of supporters included the US, Russia, Japan, Canada, the UK, Germany and Australia, who would not only back India but were willing to persuade others to come on board. Then there was a "wider support group" consisting largely of East European countries, Central Asia and some from Western Europe like the Netherlands and Belgium. Together, these groups totalled 38 of the 48 countries.
+Of the remaining 10 countries, the third group consisted of six countries, including Brazil, Switzerland and Turkey, that believed in what was termed the "soft process". These countries were willing to back India at the meeting if the NSG simultaneously agreed upon criteria for admitting non-NPT members like India and Pakistan. The fourth group consisted of three members-Austria, New Zealand and Ireland-who were categorised as wanting the "hard process". They were not opposed to India's bid but wanted to get the sequencing right-maintaining that the criteria should be fixed first before the Indian or any other application could be considered. China was unique in its opposition and was classified as a Group of 1. It was willing only if Pakistan's application was also considered. But within a day China changed its stand when it found that very few NSG members wanted Pakistan's case to be considered. The estimate was that 46 members opposed Pakistan and only two, China and Turkey, were supportive.
+When China realised that there was stiff opposition to Pakistan's application, it changed its stand from "linkage to blockage", as an Indian official put it. China first pursued procedural tactics and told the chair, now headed by South Korea, that India's application was not on the agenda and couldn't be discussed. India's supporters hit back by forcing the chair to agree to a discussion. It was then that China turned the tables on India. South Korea needed China's backing to come out strongly against North Korea's nuclear shenanigans. As a quid pro quo, China persuaded South Korea into passing a killer decision: There would be a discussion on India's application but no decision in this meeting.
+The moment the chair decided the norms, India knew its chances to be admitted in this round were close to nil. Nevertheless, Modi raised the stakes by requesting Xi in his meeting with him on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Tashkent, to consider India's case for the NSG in a "fair" and "objective" manner. Meanwhile, with no decision in sight, some nations that had pledged support to India, talked of evolving criteria to permit non-NPT members, a development China cited as indicative of other members' opposition.
+It also gave China the opportunity to put out its maximalist position: Unless a nation signs the NPT, it should not be admitted as a member. This was a no-no for India. Instead, India pointed out that the NSG stipulates that a member needs to "adhere" to the NPT rules but does not explicitly state that it should be a member. India pointed out that in 2008 when the NSG had given its waiver, India had agreed to the widest possible implementation of the NPT provisions and had already proven its credentials.
+Knowing that waiting for the next year's NSG plenary could create fresh problems, India then lobbied hard to keep the door open for it. Mexico pushed for Argentina's Grossi, the outgoing chairperson, to head an informal panel to evolve a consensus on how to proceed with India's application. India is hoping that this winter will bring it some nuclear contentment. When contacted by india today, Jaishankar remained cautious and said, "The door remains open and we will stay the course."
+While India came out with a tough statement, singling out China for its opposition, the MEA later toned down the rhetoric. Rather than demonise China, the strategy was to use persuasion. In his interview to a television channel, Modi didn't reveal any bitterness and instead said, "Foreign policy is not about changing mindsets. It is about finding common ground and where our interests converge and how much." The fallout of the NSG issue on the bilateral relationship is still uncertain. In the past, India and China have largely succeeded in compartmentalising problems such as the boundary issue to keep relations on an even keel. In truth, India's leverage on this front is limited. Two-way trade which touched $71 billion last year is heavily skewed in China's favour, with the deficit reaching $51 billion.
+What is clear is that playing the trade card would also come at a price: the Narendra Modi government has worked overtime to turn around investor sentiment in China after a decade of lukewarm response. Beijing is going forward in a big way with infrastructure projects that India needs, from massive solar plants in Andhra Pradesh to energy parks in Gujarat. Investments in 2015 were double the total amount of the past decade.
+Overall, Jaishankar remains sanguine that India's membership would get through saying, "We will continue to use reason and our powers of persuasion to win NSG member nations over including China."
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