Khandesh District

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Khandesh District, 1908

District in the Central Division of the Bombay Presidency, lying between 20° 16' and 22 degree 2' N. and 73 degree 35 and 76 degree 24' E., with an area of 10,041 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the Satpura Hills and the Narbada. river ; on the east by Berar and the Nimar District of the Central Provinces ; on the south by the Satmala, Chandor, or Ajanta hills; on the south-west by the

1 In 1906 the District was divided into two new Districts called West and East Khandesh, with head-quarters at Dhulia and Jalgaon. The former contains 7 lalnkas and one petha, with an area of 5,497 square miles, a population of 469,654, and a land revenue of 15.7 lakhs. The latter contains 10 s and 3 pelhas, with an area of 4,544 square miles, a population of 957,728, and a land revenue of 27-4 lakhs. District of Nasik • and on the west by Baroda territory and the petty State of Sagbara in the Rewa Kantha Agency.

Physical aspects

Khandesh forms the most northerly section of the Deccan table-land. The chief natural feature is the river Tapti, which, entering at the north-east corner of the District, flows in a westerly Physical direction, dividing it into two unequal parts. Of these, the larger lies towards the south, and is drained by the rivers Girna, Bori, and Panjhra. Here is the long central plain of Khandesh— an unbroken stretch of 150 miles, from the border of Nimar to Nandurbar, comprising an extensive area of rich alluvial soil. In this tract large and prosperous towns and villages, surrounded by mango groves and gardens, are numerous. Except when blasted by the hot winds of the dry season, the fields are clothed with a harvest of various crops. Northwards beyond the alluvial plain the land rises towards the Satpura Hills. In the centre and east, save for some low ranges of barren hills, the country is level, and has in general an arid, infertile appearance. Towards the north and west, the plain rises into a difficult and rugged country, thickly wooded, and inhabited by tribes of Bhils, who chiefly live on the wild fruits of the forest and are supported by the profits of wood-cutting. The drainage of the District centres in the Tapti, which receives thirteen principal tributaries in its winding course of 180 miles through Khan- desh. None of the rivers is navigable, and the Tapti flows in too deep a bed to be made use of for irrigation. Its banks rise high and bare at a distance of from 240 to 400 yards across. Except for two waterfalls, one above and the other below the Bhusawal railway bridge, the river rolls over long sandy stretches for forty miles till it meets the waters of the Vaghar. During the rainy season the Tapti is not ford- able ; the only bridge across it is the railway bridge at Bhusawal. The Nareada skirts the north-west corner of the District for 45 miles. It occasionally serves to carry timber to the coast. Khandesh District on the whole ma\ be said to be fairly well supplied with surface water, for, besides the rivers that flow during the whole year, the channels of many of the smaller streams are seldom entirely without water. The four principal mountain ranges are : in the north, the Satpura Hills, dividing the valleys of the Tapti and the Narbada, including the peak of Panchu-Pandu (3,000 feet) and plateau of Turanmal (3,300 feet), the starting point of Khandesh history; in the south-east, the ll.uii; in the south, the Satmala, Chandor, or Ajanta range, sepa rating Khandesh from the Deccan table-land, and, speaking roughly, from the Nizam's Dominions; on the west, between Khandesh and Gujarat, is the northern extremity of the Western Ghats. The Arva and Galna hills divide Khandesh from Nasik.

The geology of Khandesh has been examined only as far south as the Tapti. The strip of varying breadth between the Tapti and Satpura Hills is chiefly covered with alluvium. Basalt of the 1 )eccan trap group is the only other formation, composing the hills and showing here and there in the deeper ravines. Basalt probably occurs in the bed of the Tapti, as, in many places to the south, it rises at no great distance from the stream ; and though alluvium stretches north for 15 miles, rock appears near Bhusawal at the point where the railway bridge crosses the Tapti. About 5 miles from Burhanpur, and about a mile north-east of Chulkhan village, there is a singular patch of lime- stone, about 50 feet long. It shows no sign of crystallization and appears to contain no fossils. At one end there is white sandy rock, like decomposed gneiss, standing upright as if part of a vertical bed. The presence of rounded grains points to its being sandstone ; and the whole rock is evidently part of an infra-trappean formation, either Lameta or Bagh, brought up by a dike or included in a lava-flow. The Deccan trap in the north of Khandesh shows signs of disturbance sub- sequent to its original formation. The beds are in some places hori- zontal, as in the Aner valley and near Daulet, north of Chopda, and also westward as far as the Bombay-Agra road, where, on the top of the ascent to Sindwa, the beds stretch in horizontal terraces. The traps of Turanmal are nearly horizontal, but in the low rises from Burhanpur to the neighbourhood of Raver the beds appear to dip northwards. North-west of Turanmal is a low east-north-east dip which continues as far as the Udai river. The trap along the north boundary of Khandesh has a low irregular northerly dip. There are four hot springs, three in Chopda and one in Shirpur '.

Khandesh is usually considered a separate botanical province of the Presidency, including the valley of the Tapti and the western half of the Satpura Hills. The former is generally well wooded, and the latter is clothed with dense forests. In the east of the Khandesh Satpuras anjan and salai (Bosive/Iia serratd) predominate. In Chopda and Shirpur teak is found in all the valleys. The Shahada forests are chiefly khair, and in Akhrani anjan reappears on the banks of the Narbada. On the west the spurs of the Ghats are remarkable for the growth of anjan, and about Savda on the east the country has quite a park-like appearance. In the south-east the forest area is small, yielding only a small quantity of anjan. The chief trees are the banyan, mango (Mangifera indica), mahua (Bassia latifolia), pipal {Ficus reh- giosa),palas {Butea frondosa), umbar {Fiats glomerata), and temburni {Diospyros melanoxylori). The chief flowering plants are the Hibiscus, Sida, Indigo/era, Crotalaria, Butea, Cassia, Echinops, Tric/iodesma, Commelina, Ipomoea, and Celosia.

1 W. T. Blanford, ' Geology of the Tapti and Lower Narbada Valleys, &c.,' Memoirs, Geological Survey of India, vol. vi, pp. 286-90 and 344-51. Wild beasts are numerous, comprising the tiger, leopard, hunting cheetah, bear, lynx, wolf, bison, savibar deer, spotted deer, nl/gai, antelope, ' ravine deer ' (gazelle), and the four-horned deer. Up to the seventeenth century the hilly tracts to the north of the District were a breeding-ground for wild elephants. At the time of the introduction of British rule, and for many years after, tigers and leopards were found in every part of the District. As late as 1858, tigers were numerous; but since then they have been very closely hunted, and are now rare.

Owing to differences of elevation, the climate varies greatly in differ- ent parts of the District. In the western hills and forests and in the Satpuras the rainfall is heavy ; but over much of the centre and south it is scanty. Nevertheless the District has till quite recently been considered safe from famine. The town of Dhulia, which may be taken to illustrate the average, has an annual rainfall of 22 inches. In the District it varies from 20 to 45. In the cold season (October to January), except on cloudy days, the climate is pleasant and bracing. I kiting the hot months the air is extremely dry. At Dhulia the temperature falls as low as 52 in January, rising to no° in May, when the heat is excessive. The general health of the people is best in the hot and worst in the cold season. Malaria is rife at the beginning of the latter, when the ground commences to dry after the rains. In the east and centre, the climate is trying to Europeans, but healthy to the natives. In the west, all periods except the hot season are injurious to native and European alike.

History

The early history of Khandesh extends from 150 B.C., the date of the oldest rock inscription yet discovered and deciphered, to the year a. d. 1295, when the Musalman emperor Ala-ud-din suddenly appeared from Delhi. The mythical annals of the Hindu period may be said to commence with the mention in the Mahabharata of the hill forts of Turanmai and Asirgarh : the ruler of Turanmai is recorded as having fought against the Pandavas ; the fort of Asirgarh is named as a place of worship to Ashvatthama. Local tradition asserts that, from a time long previous to Christianity, the dynasty in power was that of a Rajput chief whose ancestors had come from Oudh. The first line of which distinct record remains is, how- ever, that of the Andhras. The Andhras were temporarily displaced by the Western Satraps ; in the fifth century a.d. the Chalukya dynasties rose to power; local chiefs followed; and Khandesh was under the Chauhan ruler of Asirgarh when Ala-ud-din appeared.

Muhammadan rule lasted until the Marathas captured the stronghold of Asirgarh in 1760. In the interval, until the Farukis, Khandesh was subject to successive governors from Delhi, sent by the different dynasties that rose in that city. Under Muhammad bin Tughlak, from 1325 to 1346, Khandesh was administered from Ellichpur in Berar. From 1370 to 1600 the Arab dynasty of the Farukis administered the District, and, though nominally subject to the Sultans of Gujarat, were practically independent. The last year of the sixteenth century (1599) saw the coming of the Mughals. In that year Akbar in person overran Khandesh at the head of an army, captured Aslrgarh, and sent the reigning prince, Bahadur Khan, to Gwalior fur safe keeping. Khandesh then became incorporated into the Delhi empire. Its name was changed for a time to Dandesh in honour of its new governor, prince Daniyal. In the middle of the seventeenth century it was highly pros- perous. From 1670 Maratha raids commenced, and it was for more than a century given up to every species of calamity, internal and external. In that year Sivaji, after his second sack of Surat, sent an officer to demand chauth in Khandesh. The Marathas captured and held Salher fort, and afterwards Khande Rao Dabhade established himself in the western hills. Thenceforward the District was the scene of numerous plundering raids. Sivaji, Sambhaji, and the emperor Aurangzeb ravaged it in turn. In 1720 Nizam-ul-mulk an- nexed Khandesh and held it throughout his life. His son was ousted by the Marathas in 1760. The Peshwa, on recovering the District, granted portions of it to Holkar and Sindia.

In 1S02 the country was ravaged by Holkar's army. For two seasons the land remained uncared for, the destruction and ruin bringing on a severe famine. In the years that followed, Khandesh was further impoverished by the greed and misrule of the Peshwa. The people, leaving their peaceful callings, joined together in bands, wandering over the country, robbing and laying waste. It was in this state that, in 181 8, the District passed into British hands. For many years after annexation the Bhll tribes gave trouble by outbreaks of lawlessness, and were only brought into submission under the kindlier measures adopted in the time of Elphinstone (1825), who entrusted the work of pacification to the skilful hands of Outram, the founder of the Bhll Corps. A serious riot occurred in 1852, and in 1857 the Bhils broke out under the leadership of Bhagoji and Kajarsing Naik ; but these disorders were easily suppressed.

Generally distributed over Khandesh, as well as in Ahmadnagar and the Central Deccan, are the stone-built temples, reservoirs, and wells locally known as Hemadpanti, or in Khandesh as Gauli Raj. The term ' Hemadpanti ' is derived from Hemadpant or Hemadri, the minister {mantri) of Ramchandra (1271) the Yadava ruler of Deogiri, but is now applied to any old stone building. The local Khandesh term 'Gauli Raj' probably also refers to the Yadava kings. In Khandesh thirty-nine Hemadpanti buildings are found, thirty-one of them being temples, six step-wells, and two stone-lined reservoirs. Some may be of greater age, but most of them were probably built in either the twelfth or the thirteenth century. These Hemadpanti buildings are all of blocks of cut stone carefully joined and put together without mortar. In some the stones are so large as to have given rise to the saying that they are the work of giants.

Besides the Hemadpanti remains, the District possesses some Musal- man buildings, the most important of which is the mosque at Erandol. Pitalkhora glen in the Chalisgaon taluka contains a ruined chaitya and vihdra, very early Buddhist works, probably dating from two centuries before Christ. In the valley beneath is the deserted city of Patna, where there are old carved temples and inscriptions, while on the hill opposite are other and later caves. The temple of Krishna in Vaghali, built 200 years before Hemadpant lived, contains three fine inscribed slabs in the inner wall of the hall.

Population

There are 31 towns and 2,614 villages in the District. The Census of 1 90 1 disclosed a total population of 1,427,382, or an increase of 40 per cent, in the last thirty years. In previous years the numbers were : (1872) 1,030,106, (1881) 1,237,308, and (1891) 1,434,802. The increase of 20 per cent, in 1881 was due to immigration, attracted by the large area of unoccupied fertile land available for cultivation. The population decreased by 0-5 per cent, in 1901 owing to a succession of bad harvests (1896-1901)- The distribution by s is as follows : —

Khandesh district.png

The chief towns arc : Dhulia (the head-quarters of the new District of West Khandesh), Bhusmval, Dharangaon, NasIrabad, Nandi r bar, Chalisgaon, Bhadgaon, Jamner, Adavad, Chopda, Jalgaon (the head-quarters of the new District of East Khandesh), Parola, Erandol, Amalner, Faizapur, Pachora, Nagardevla, and Bodvad. The average density is 142 persons per square mile, but the western portion of the District is on the whole more thinly populated than the east. Shahada and Taloda are the talukas of smallest density, and Yaval and Jalgaon are the most densely populated. Of the total population, 90 per cent, are Hindus, 8 per cent. Musalmans, 12,298 or 0-9 per cent. Jains, and 11,600 or o-8 per cent. Animists ; Christians number 1,398. Gujarat! is in use among the higher classes of husbandmen to the north of the Tapti, and it is the language of trade throughout the District ; but Marath!, the speech of the people in the south and west, is the language of Government offices and schools, and is gradually gaining ground. In their homes the majority of the people speak a dialect known as Khandesh! or Ahirani, a mixture of Gujarat!, Marath!, Nemadi, and Hindustani, in which Gujarat! pre- dominates.

The important castes are: Kunbl, 330,000; Bh!l, 167,000 (of whom 10,000 are Musalmans); Mahar, 107,000; Maratha, 94,000; Mai! (gardener), 60,000; Kol!, 57,000; Brahman, 50,000; Van!, 47,000 (chiefly Gujars) ; Rajput, 40,000 ; Dhangar, 39,000 ; Vanjari, 32,000 ; Teli (oil-men), 27,000; Sonar (goldsmith), 24,000; Nhavi (barber), 21,000; Chamar (leather-worker), 20,000; Sutar (carpenter), 16,000; Shimpi (tailor), 16,000; and Mang, 13,000. Of the thirteen divisions of Brahmans in the District, three understand but do not speak Marath! ; the remaining ten use that language. As a rule, the main divisions eat together but do not intermarry ; the subdivisions as a rule do both. Deshasths (32,546) are most numerous. The others are the descendants of Brahmans from every part of India who found their way to Khandesh. The Prabhus, a section of the 'writer' class, are scattered over the District, most of them in the service of Government.

Besides the general body of cultivators, who are Kunbis by caste, large numbers of Pardhis (5,150), a low caste of wandering hunters and snarers, and Rajputs have long been settled in the District. Another class of cultivators worthy of notice are the Gujar Vanis, the most industrious and well-to-do of the agricultural population. Their name, and their habit of speaking Gujarat! among themselves, show that they are immigrants from Gujarat. Most of the traders are foreigners : Banias from Marwar and Gujarat, and Bhatias, recent comers from Bombay. Wandering and aboriginal tribes form a large section of the population. Many of the Bhils are employed on police duties and as village watchmen. But though most have settled down to peaceable ways, they show little skill in farming. Since the introduction of British rule into Khandesh, the efforts made, by kindly treatment and the offer of suitable employment, to win the Bhlls from a disorderly life have been most successful. With the Mahars they form the labouring class in nearly all the villages of Khandesh. The Nirdhls dwell along the foot of the Satmalas. In former times they were much dreaded. During seasons of revolt the most atrocious acts were invariably the work of the Nirdhls. Vanjaris or Lamanis, the pack-bullock carriers of former and the gipsies of present times, have suffered much from the increased use of carts and the introduction of the railway. A few are well-to-do traders ; but most of them live apart from the villages, in bands or fandas, each with its own leader or naik. Forced to give up their old employment, they now live chiefly by grazing, and cutting grass and wood. The majority of the Musalmans are converts from Hinduism and are styled Shaikhs (55,787). In 1901, 18,504 Pathans, descendants of the Musalman invaders, were found in the District. More than 50 per cent, of the population are agriculturists, and various industries support 22 per cent.

Of the 821 native Christians in the District in 1901, 440 were Roman Catholics and 132 Anglicans. There are Roman Catholic chapels at Dhulia, Bhusawal, and Dharangaon. For missionary purposes the District is divided into three parts, the western portion being occupied by the Scandinavian-American Mission, the centre by the Church Missionary Society, and the east by the American Alliance Mission. The head-quarters of the first-named society are at Nandurbar, of the second at Dhulia, while the Alliance Mission has stations along the Great Indian Peninsula Railway at Bhusawal, Jalgaon, Pachora, and Chalisgaon. Besides these, there are two smaller semi-independent missions : the Tapti Valley Railway Industrial Mission at Navapur, which works chiefly among the Bhlls, and the Peniel Mission at Dharangaon. The majority of the Christian population reside at Nandurbar, Dhulia ; Bhusawal, and Dharangaon.

Agriculture

The soils are composed of all grades, from the deep rich black of the Tapti valley to the poor stony red and white of the low trap ranges. The local husbandmen divide them into four classes : kali (black), pandhari (white), khdran (salt), and burki (white and salt). The District is chiefly ryotivdri, only about 2 per cent, of the total area being held on udhad tenure and 3 per cent, as inam land. The chief statistics of cultivation in 1903-4 are shown in the table on the next page, in square miles.

Jowar and bajra are both largely grown in Khandesh, the areas under these crops being 667 and 929 square miles respectively; fowar is chiefly grown as a kharif crop, in rotation with cotton. Bajra everywhere holds a far more important place. Wheatj with an area of 182 square miles, is grown throughout the District, though most common along the Tapti valley and in the west. The chief pulses are tur, gram, udid, kulith, and mug, which to§ occupied 581 square miles in 1903-4. Til and linseed arc the principal oilseeds, covering 250 and 63 square miles respectively. The former is considered the more profitable crop. The area under the latter varies considerably according to the nature of the late rains. Cotton, long one of the chief crops, occupied 2,013 square miles. It is seldom grown oftener than once in three years in the same' field, and the local variety has been supplemented by Hinganghat and Dharwar seed.

Khandesh district6.png

For 2,530 square miles of this area statistics are not available. There have been changes since 1900 in the areas of several s, owing to the introduction of the revision survey.

Several attempts have been made, dating from 1829, to reclaim the Pal tappa, a waste tract in the neighbourhood of the Satpura Hills, which is said to have been formerly well inhabited. At the time of the British occupation in 18 18, this was a deserted jungle, excessively unhealthy, and infested with wild beasts. It is said to have been deserted about the middle of the seventeenth century, owing to famine ; and the remains of ancient buildings show that the village of Pal was formerly of considerable importance. .Special efforts to improve the staple of the local cotton have been made for many years, but the cultivation of exotic varieties has not spread ; it is found that the exotics speedily deteriorate in quality and give an inferior yield to that of the local variety. In 1903-4 a small plot of land was acquired by Government at Dhulia, and several varieties of cotton and jowar^ new to the District, were sown. The experiment is reported to be more promising than previous attempts, but definite results have not been arrived at. Sugar-cane is grown in small areas where irrigation is available. Chillies, fennel, and coriander are the principal condiments and spices. The cultivation of betel-vines is carried on with consider- able success in garden lands.

The cultivators of Khandesh have availed themselves freely of the Land Improvement and Agriculturists' Loans Acts, and nearly 25 lakhs was advanced during the decade ending 1904. Of this sum, nearly 20 lakhs represents advances made during the famine years 1899-1900, 1900-1, and 1901-2.

The District contains many fine cows and bullocks, brought chiefly from Nimar and Berar. The Thilari herd of cattle of West Khandesh has a good reputation in the Deccan ; but the greater number of the cattle are small and poor, reduced during the hot season to the most wretched condition. The horses also are small and of little value. To improve the breed, the Civil Veterinary department maintains two pony stallions at Dhulia and Chalisgaon, which are not, however, fully utilized.

Irrigation is practised mainly from dams thrown across the streams, particularly on the Girna and Panjhra rivers, and there are lakes and reservoirs which also serve for irrigation. The area under various classes of irrigation is 56^ square miles, or a little more than one per cent, of the total cultivated area of the District. Government canals supply 16 square miles, private canals one, wells 38, and other sources 1 1/2 square miles. The dams must at one time have been very numerous. In the west there is scarcely a stream of any size without traces of them. Of works carried out by the Irrigation department the chief are : lower Panjhra river works, the Hartala tank, the Jamda canals, and the Mhasva lake. The first two are old works improved and extended ; the others are new. The lower Panjhra water-works, which are estimated to command nearly 20 square miles, supply about 4 square miles in Dhulia and Amalner. The Jamda canals on the Girna, one of the earliest Government water-works, which are esti- mated to command 72 square miles, water about 2 square miles, mostly in Chalisgaon and Pachora. The Hartala lake in the Bhusawal commands an area of 600 acres, but did not supply water in 1903-4. The Mhasva lake in the petty subdivision (petha) of Parola in Amalner irrigated a total area of 181 acres, and is estimated to command 4,600 acres. Over most of the District water is found near the surface. But near the Satpuras and within 8 or 10 miles of the Tapti, wells have sometimes to be dug as deep as 100 feet. For drawing water the leathern bag or mot is in almost universal use. Each bag waters a quarter of an acre daily. In 1903-4, 83 other irrigation works (including the Parsul tank, irrigating 66S acres) watered 19,500 acres. Wells numbered 27,031, and minor tanks 12.

Forest

Khandesh is the most important forest District of the Bombay Presi- dency after Kanara. The absence of conservancy rules in the past and the destructive habits of the hill tribes have robbed the jungles of most of their valuable timber. The forest Reserves now cover more than 2,168' square miles, and the area of fodder reserves and pasture land under the control of the Revenue department is 284 square miles. They lie chiefly on the hills to the west and south-west, but much of the hilly land unsuited for cul- tivation may eventually be reserved for forest. In spite of its large area, Khandesh uses more timber than it grows. The most impor- tant minor produce is the mahua flower. Myrabolams and mahua seed are collected in the west. Teak, babul, and black-wood are of common occurrence. The gross forest revenue in 1903-4 amounted to 2-3 lakhs. The District is divided into two forest divisions, which are in charge of divisional Forest officers aided by two subdivisional officers.

Khandesh has little mineral wealth. Building stone occurs every- where, the best quarry being in the bed of the Vaghur river near Bhusawal. Kankar or nodular limestone is found in all black soil and yields good lime, while clay suitable for brick-making is obtain- able in all parts of the District.

Trade and communication

The crafts and industries are of some importance. Cotton-pressing and ginning is carried on in 36 presses with 2,228 operatives. The weaving of coarse woollen blankets commun i ca ti ns. is common all over the District. There is a cotton- spinning and weaving mill at Jalgaon, started in 1874, under the name of the Khandesh Spinning and Weaving Company. It has 425 looms and 20,948 spindles, and employs 1,185 hands. The out- turn is over 2 million pounds of yarn and 1 ½ million pounds of cloth, and the paid-up capital 7 ½ lakhs. The cloth is sold in Khandesh, Berar, and the Nizam's Dominions. There are railway workshops at Bhusawal.

The most important article of export is cotton. The Bombay Bhatias buy it from local dealers and growers, and press it for direct shipment by sea. Of late years many Bombay mercantile houses have established agencies in Khandesh, and towards the east in the rich Tapti valley. Jalgaon and Bhusawal are rising into important centres of trade. The other chief exports are food-grains, oilseeds, butter, indigo, wax, and honey. Of imports the chief articles are salt,

1 This figure differs from that in the table on p. 233, owing to the omission of forest statistics of certain villages in the Shahada and to the non-inclusion in the revenue returns of the forest area of the Mehwas estates. spices, metals, piece-goods, yarn, and sugar. The internal trade is carried on by means of weekly markets and a succession of fairs and religious feasts.

At the beginning of British rule there were no made roads. The first to be constructed was the Bombay-Agra road, which runs via Malegaon, Dhulia, and Shirpur through the District. Since then road- making has made considerable progress, and some of the passes through the hills have been opened to cart traffic. Besides the Bombay-Agra road, the chief roads are those from Dhulia to Surat and from Dhulia to Mhasawad. The total length of roads is 955 miles, of which 325 are metalled. Of these, 300 miles of metalled roads and 252 miles of unmetalled roads are maintained by the Public Works department. Avenues of trees are planted on about 950 miles. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway runs for 137 miles through the south of the District from Naydongri to Bhusawal, where it divides, one branch going to Jubbulpore and the other to Nagpur. Branches from Jalgaon to Amalner, 35 miles long, and from Chalisgaon to Dhulia, 35 miles in length, were opened in 1900. The Tapti Valley Railway from Surat to Amalner, running for 108 miles through the central portion of the District from east to west, was opened in March, 1900, and has ten stations within its limits.

Famine,&c.

The Tapti and lesser streams are liable to sudden and disastrous rising of their waters. Six great floods caused more or less injury in the District during the nineteenth century. In 1822 sixty-five villages were entirely destroyed by the Tapti, and fifty were partly washed away, causing a loss in money value of 2 ½ lakhs. In 1872 the Girna and Panjhra rose 45 feet above the level of the river-bed, the latter sweeping away five hundred houses in the town of Dhulia. A whole village on the opposite side of the river suddenly disappeared. One hundred and fifty-two villages were damaged, and property to the value of 16 lakhs destroyed. Over one thousand persons were on this occasion relieved by public and private charity.

Besides the Durga-devI famine, which is said to have greatly reduced the population of Khandesh, the only scarcity mentioned before the beginning of the last century was in 1629. In that year, following the ravages of war, there was a total failure of rain which caused widespread distress. A severe famine was recorded in 1802-4, when the selling price of grain is reported to have risen to one seer per rupee. Great numbers died, and extensive tracts were left deserted and waste. This famine was due, not to any natural causes, but to the ravages of Holkar's army, which during two years (1802-3) spread desolation and famine throughout the District. Scarcities not amount- ing to famine occurred in 1824, 1833-6, 1845, 1 876—7, and 1896-7. In 1896 the population suffered from a general rise in the prices of food. The early rains, however, were excellent, and the khaftf did not fail. The hill tribes therefore suffered little, and West Khan- desh was free from the pinch of the high prices. Relief works were maintained for fourteen months, the workers reaching a maximum of 36,560 in April, 1897. In 1899 the failure of the rains affected all parts of the District, and the distress lasted for fourteen months. The kharlf crop was a total failure and the rabi area was not sown, except in irrigated lands, there being no late rains. As early as October, 1899, The number on relief works exceeded 33,000. It advanced steadily till in March of 1900 it was 257,000, while the number on gratuitous relief was 13,000. From this it fell to 553 in February, 1901, rising again to 42,000 in July, 1901, and falling to 1,800 in September. It is calculated that 79,000 deaths occurred in excess of the normal during the period, and that 385,000 cattle died. The total cost was about 76 lakhs. Remissions amounted to 17 lakhs, and nearly 20 lakhs was granted in loans to agri- culturists. Locusts have sometimes visited Khandesh, but seldom in sufficient numbers to do much harm. In 1869 a large cloud crossed the Dis- trict from north to south, and in 1873 and 1878 they did some injury to the late crop. Rats in 1847-8, 1878-9, and in 1901-2 caused much havoc.

Administration

The District is divided into seventeen s, in charge of three covenanted Civilians and two Deputy-Collectors. Of the three cove- nanted Civilians, one is Personal Assistant to the

Collector, who has also an extra Deputy-Collector as daftardar. There are four petty subdivisions or pethas : Parola, Bhadgaon, Navapur, and Edalabad, in the s of Amalner, Pachora, Nandurbar, and Bhusawal respectively. The formation of two separate Districts is referred to in the note on p. 225. The Mehwas estates are included in the District for administrative purposes. The District and Sessions Judge at Dhulia is aided for civil business by ten Subordinate Judges. Criminal justice is administered by 50 Magistrates, including the District Magistrate. The commonest forms of crime are theft, house-breaking, and dacoity. On occupation by the British, 1,146 Government villages were found entirely deserted, besides 413 which were uninhabited but partly tilled by persons living in the neighbouring villages; only 1,836 villages were inhabited. The establishment of order and the advent of high prices soon caused a rapid increase in tillage and revenue. But a sub- sequent fall in prices checked improvement, and progress was slow for several years. After 1832 the improvement began to be more marked, and continued steadily up to 1852. One of the first measures of im- provement was the withdrawal from the hereditary officials of powers the possession of which by them was found to be a source of oppression to the people. The settlement of the revenue was then made direct with the cultivators and not with the headmen of the villages. The revenue was fixed on the average payments of ten previous years. Gradually, inequalities of measurement were reduced to a common standard. About 1830 it was found that the assessments were too high, leaving no margin to the cultivator for improvements. Great reductions were then made in the rates on irrigated lands ; the rates on ' dry-crop ' lands were also reduced, wherever this was found to be necessary, and liberal remissions were made. Still progress was slow ; and no attempt was made until 1852 to introduce a survey, which, it was felt, would be very costly. In that year, as it appeared that the rates in Khandesh were higher than in other Districts, it was determined to carry out a survey on a plan suited to a country where so much of the land was waste. The objects of it were misunderstood, and troops had to be called out. But, on the leaders being seized, the opposition died away and the work was carried out between the years 1854 and 1870. Since then the District has made a most marked advance. Its popu- lation has largely increased and the area under cultivation has nearly trebled. Cultivation has been pushed to the base of the hills ; and only in a few parts can good land now be found untitled, while wild beasts have been driven from the plain to the hills and the ravines. This remarkable development is, no doubt, in great measure due to the facilities offered by the railway for the export of produce to better markets, and to the great demand for cotton, which Khandesh is in a position to satisfy. The revision survey settlement was commenced in 1886 and completed (with the exception of a small area, chiefly in Xandurbar, originally settled in 190 1-3) in 1904. The new survey found an increase in the cultivated area of 4 per cent, over the amount shown in the accounts, and the settlement enhanced the total revenue from 31 to 40 lakhs. The average assessment per acre of ' dry ' land is Rs. 1-6 ; of rice land, Rs. 1-10 ; and garden land, Rs. 2-14.

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources have been, in thousands of rupees : —

Khandesh district2.png

The District has 21 municipalities: namely, Amalner, Parola, Erandol, Dharangaon, Bhadgaon, Chopda, Shirpur. Sindkheda, Betwad, Savada, Yaval, Bhusawal, Jalgaon, Dhulia, Songir, Taloda, Shahada, Prakasha, Nandurbar, Faizpur, and Ravi r. The total receipts of these average 1 nearly 3 lakhs. The District I and 17 boards had an income in 1903-4 of 4^ lakhs. The principal source of income is the land cess. The expenditure amounted to 4^ lakhs, including nearly 2 lakhs devoted to the main- tenance and construction of roads and buildings.

The District Superintendent of police is aided by three Assistant Superintendents, one probationary Assistant Superintendent, and four inspectors. There are altogether 37 police stations. The force in 1904 numbered 1,636 : namely, 23 chief constables, 335 head constables, and 1,278 constables. The mounted police number 62 under S daffa- dars. In addition to the District jail at Dhulia, with accommodation for 450 prisoners, there are 23 subsidiary jails and 21 lock-ups which can accommodate 408 and 202 prisoners respectively. The daily average number of prisoners in 1904 was 493, of whom 16 were females.

Khandesh stands twelfth as regards literacy among the twenty-four Districts of the Presidency. The Census of 1901 returned 4-8 per cent, of the population (9-3 males and 0-2 females) as able to read and write. Education has made great progress of late years. In 1881 there were only 317 schools, attended by 18,656 pupils. The number of pupils rose to 29,346 in 1891 and to 30,293 in T90T. In 1903-4 the schools num- bered 538 (including 122 private schools with 1,713 pupils), attended by 22, i8r pupils, of whom 845 were girls. One is a high school, 12 are middle schools, 401 primary, one is a training school, and one an indus- trial school. Three are maintained by Government, 332 by local boards, 70 by municipalities, and 1 1 are aided. The training school and the industrial school are at Dhulia. The expenditure on education in 1903-4 was 2 1/2 lakhs, of which Local funds contributed Rs. 73,000 and Rs. 24,000 was recovered as fees. Of the total, nearly 80 per cent, was devoted to primary schools.

The District contains twenty dispensaries, one hospital, and two other medical institutions, accommodating 167 in-patients. In these institu- tions 114,213 persons, including 1,229 in-patients, were treated in 1904, and 3,797 operations performed. The total expenditure was over Rs. 39,000, of which Rs. 16,940 was contributed by Local and muni- cipal funds.

The number of persons successfully vaccinated in 1903-4 was 39,000, representing a proportion of 27 per 1,000 of population, which exceeds the average for the Presidency. [Sir J. M. Campbell, Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xii (1880) ; A. F. David- son, Settlement Report (1854).]

This article has been extracted from

THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908.

OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS.

Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts. Some units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value.

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