Khasi Literature
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Khasi Literature: CIFL's research
Oral:
Tradition:
Traditional oral literature is well established in the Khasi Society, especially in the pre-literate days prior to 1841. Parents and elders told stories woven around the fold myths and legends, sometimes to the accompaniment of a Duitara, a Mary thing or other simple instruments. The scene was usually around the family hearth late in the evening, after the day’s hard work in the rice field or forests. The family hearth in the kitchen was also the ‘classroom’ where children and teenagers learn about moral and social laws (ki jingsneng tymmen). Many folk tales and stories, as well as the exhortations of elders, were later reduced to writing. Many were also lost, before they could be written, when the tradition of story-telling died out in the course of time.
Group oral literature includes ‘ki phawar’ or couplets on various subjects, in different situations, set to simple music. For example, during the ritual of bringing the bones (of a deceased clan or family member) to be kept in the clan’s Ossuary, some make members would spontaneously compose and sing a phawar, one after another, while all would join in at the repeated line. Other ritualistic phawar include the paying of respects to the paternal grand mother, justification for victory in a war, or for a kill (tiger or beer) and so on. Some ‘phawar’ were light-hearted, composed in happy situation such as dances, archery etc. unfortunately most of these phawar are lost because they had not been recorded on tape or in writing. The traditional oral form is becoming a lost art among the modern present day generation.
Types:
Some of the types of oral literature include lyrics (poetry and song), hymns used in various congregations, Christian and Non-Christian, ritual songs, especially mourning songs (again, a lost art because they are spontaneous and oral). There are a number of folk songs above love (romantic love, parental love) nature, god etc. some lullabies still exist, but must have been lost with the passage of time.
Written Literature:
1844-1916
The History of written literature began with Ka Gospel of u Matti (1844), a translation of the Gospel of Mathew into Khasi by Thomas Jones. The first Welsh Missionary also wrote many Primers and Readers, but these cannot be taken as literature as the Bible can be Thomas Jones set the stage for written Khasi and for written literature, both for Khasi and Non-Khasi writers, especially the missionaries.
According to (late) R.S.Lyngdoh, the period 1888-1910 saw the emergence of the pioneering Khasi writers. Out of the many who contributed to the growth of Khasi literature, five names are more important for study. These include Jeebon Roy Mairom (1838-1903), Rabon Singh Kharsuka, Radhon Singh Kharwanlang, Rev. Morkha Chyne and Hormu Rai Diengdoh.
Rev. Morkha Chyne’s career as a poet went along very well with his calling as a Pastor. He was most productive between 1888-1916, and his poetry was published in an anthology “ka Ryngkap ne ki poetry khasi”. His best known work is U Sierlapalang, a fivety-one stanza tale or allegory. A revised version “U Sierlapalang” has 380 lines. i.e, 38 stanzas with ten lines each. He also composed lengthy poems including the great Earthquake of 1897 “U Jumai Bah ka Ri Khasi”. With many other Poetry works to his credit, Chyne may be considered the first major Khasi poet.
Rabon Singh Kharsuka wrote treatise on Khasi religion Ka Niam Khasi 1894, Ka Kitab Niam khein ki Khasi, Ka Kitab Jingphawar, Ka Jingiathuh khana Puriskam (Folk tale) 1908, he was also a regular contributor to Khaso news papers like U Nongapphira (1905 onwards), Ka Kot Khubor Khasi, U Nongialam Katholik etc, where his articles and poems appeared frequently. Some of his poems and prose articles were later included in prose and poetry collection.
Hormu Rai Diengdohos mostly connected to an important bulletin or journal U Khasi Mynta which provided the platform for many Khasi writers to release their creative energy. These include R.S. Kharwanlang, Job Solomon, Hajom Kissor Singh, Nelson Dkhar, and so on. U Khasi Mynta also provided a platform for academic debates on Khasi letters and spelling system.
Jeebon Roy Mairom (1838-1903) began his literary career with a book by translations of Sanskrit books – Mit-Upodesa Parts I and II, 1898, Part III 1899, Ka Ramayan (1900), Ka Kitab Chaitanya 1900. Jeebon Roy also wrote children’s stories and poems in Ka Kot Pule Nyngkong 1899, and other books. He also attempted to write history in Ka History jong ka India 1900, books on religion, Ka niam jong Ki Khasi 1897. This was followed by translations. In the same year he brought out another book on Khasi religion “Ka Kitab ba batai pynshynna shaphang U wei U Blei” (1900).
Radhon Singh Kharwanlang wrote around 35 songs and hymns, besides numerous poems and books on religion. However, he is best remembered for two important books on Khasi ethnics and etiquette, in the form of poetry- Ka Jingsneng Tymmen Part I (1902) and Part II (1903). These are in the traditional ‘Phawar’ couplets having ten syllables per line.
Following his illustrations father Jeebon Roy Mairom, Sib Charan Roy Dkhar translated mostly from Indian literature, such as Ka Bhagavad Gita (1903). He also wrote many articles which were included in “U Nongapphira”. Sib Charan Dkhar wrote books on religion such as ka “Kot Tohkit Tirtir shaphang ka niam tip Blei ki Khasi” (1913). Ka Niam Khasi – Ka Niam tip-bleit tip briew 1919, Ka Jingiakren iapule shaphang ka niam, (1924) and others.
Hari Charan Roy Dkhar produced the first work on drama “Ka Savitiri” (1910) based on the Mahabharata. His brother Dino Nath Roy Dkhar brought out the second work on drama “Ka Srommotimai lane ka HOK” (1912) about the triumph of Truth, followed by U Tipsngi, the first Khasi novel. “U Kausik” (1915) was also by Hari Charan Roy Dkhar. This work based on the Mahabharata, paved the way for the Khasi fiction.
During this period there were experimental writings in History and biography such as B K Sarma Roy’s “Shaphang ki Syiemlieh Nongkhlaw” 1908, Ka History jong ka Ri Khasi (1914); Sib Charan’s Chanakya Diti Darpana (1913) and Father Bonheim’s Ki Martir Nekro (1914).
Mention has been made of non-Khasi who wrote in Khasi, such as the Welsh Missionaries. After Thomas Jones, John Roberts in fact is known as the Father of Khasi Writings (Literature) just like Thomas Jones is the ‘Father of the Khasi Alphabets’. He translated classics like Pilgrim’s Progress (Ka Jingiaid Pilgrim 1867), Julius Kaiser etc. He also wrote short stories and essays related to Khasi socio-cultural life, and animal stories meant more for children. Rev. Roberts is credited with a beautiful patriotic song. “Ri Khasi” which shows his love for the land and the people, set to music, it also became the ‘anthem’ for all Khasis in the sub segments generations. He also contributed to the growth of the Khasi language; the Khasi English Dictionary not only gives the meaning of Khasi words but also gives a brief write-up on Khasi grammar, synonyms etc.
1910s- 1940
Mention must be made of Amjad Ali (1861-1926) who realizing the need for elementary practical works in Khasi, penned around eighteen poems and compiled around thirty-three idiomatic phrases. Thus he was not only well versed with the Khasi language but also with Khasi thought.
Poetry was a favorite genre with the early Khasi writers, who published their poems in newspapers such as U Lurshai, U Nongkit khubor etc. the poets include Rabon Sing “Ko Rangkynih” (1894), Joel Gatphoh “Ka bor bad ka burom u Blei” (1889-94), Robert Evnas “Ka Ktien Jingstad” (1924), “Sha Iapthem ha Mawkhar?” (1896), “Ha Phawar Bther Khasi Kai Hangne” (1896), H. Roy “Ka Jingrwai Kruh Ki Mawdem” (1896), H.R. Diengdoh “Ka Jingieid ia ka Ri Lum Khasi”, Nelson Dkhar “A Shnong Sohra” (1904), Solomon Blah “Tiew Pathai Khubor’ (1901).
For reasons unknown, many also under pseudonyms like U Nongrwai “D.C.M” (1898), U Rangthir “Ka Ktien Don Akor” (1898), U Khasi Puriskam (1899), U Tipniam “Ki Daw Lum Ha Ri Khasi” (1909), U Parari “Ka Jingkyrpad Kyntu ban shna la ka ka Ri” (1901) and many others.
The brightest star among the Khasi writers and the greatest poet till now, is Soso Tham. A school teacher, and the de-facto editor of “U Lurshai” for a decade (1910-1920), Soso tham began writing articles and poems to fill the pages of the newspapers. In 1920, he published a collection of stories “Ki Phawer u Aesop”. Having spent his meager resources in the publication of the book, he had to go from door to door to sell it to unwilling people. Inspired by Aesop’s Fables, Tham’s “Ki Phawer u Aesop” was written in Khasi idioms and metaphor, for the Khasi publics, in pristine Khasi. It remains one of the best works in prose. Soso Tham also wrote innumerable poems published in books lime “Ki poetry Khasi” (1925), later ka Duitara Ksiar (1931). “Ki Sngi Barim u Hynniewtrep” (1936), the last termed as classic old Khasi Literature by Prof. R.R. Thomas. The period 1930-1940 was very productive with writers like Homiwell Lyngdoh Nonglait ‘Ka Pomblang’ (), ‘Ka Pomblang Nongkrem bad ka thung Syiem Sohra (), Ka Niam Khasi’ (1938), Ki Syiem Khasi bad Synteng (1938), Ki Jait Syiem bad Jait Lyngdoh, D. Nihon Sing Wahlang “Ki Khasi Poems ne Ki Sur Khasi”.
H.Lyngdoh Nonglait ‘U Khawiang Nyngkong U Kosmopolitant’ etc; Primrose Gatphoh ‘Sawdong ka Lyngwiar Dpei’ (1933), a collection of short stories, folktales, poems, essays and one play. Ka Pansngiat Ksiar ki saw Aiom (1937), Ka hamsaia ka por ( ), U Sier Lapalang (1936), Ki Khanatang bad u Sier Lapalang (1936), B. Thangkhiew “Ki Tienrwai Khasi”, “U Nongtem Duitara”, G.Costa “Ka Riti Ki Laiphew Syiem” (1936), H.Elias “Ka Pansngiat Ksiar ki Saw Aiom” (1937).
This period was also productive in other non-literary endeavours, with the publication of dictionaries, History books, Law books Religious books etc.
1941-1960
The period 1941-1960 saw socio-political upheavals in the form of the World War, and the annexation of the Khasi states into the newly independent union of India (1945). It was therefore a ‘lean’ period, but it saw the emergence of new writers like L.L.D Basan, E.Blah, B.M Pugh, Victor G. Bareh “Ka Drama U Tirot Sing” (1956) “Ki Poetri Khasi” (1957); P.R.Pariat “Ka Shangkawiah ki rang” (1948), “Ka Maryng-od’ (1951) and other short plays. Many writers were more involved with writing religious books and articles and school textbooks.
Between 1960-1979, F.M.Pugh translated some Shakespeare’s dramas ‘As you like it’ (Katba Phi Mon), ‘Romeo and Juliet’ (U Romeo bad ka Juliet), ‘Taming of the Shrew’ (Ka Temding ia ka shla briew), Macbeth (Ka shem lanot u Macbeth) etc. An innovative/creative work to discuss about the origin of Khasi language is in the form of an imaginary dialogue “Ka Daialok” between plato (Greek), Horace (Latin) Howard (English) and Tohiko (Japanese). F.M. Pugh also wrote poems “Ka Phawar – Rwai Khasi” etc.
Other notable writers during this period include:
Victor G. Bareh “Ki Jingrwai Khasi” (1960)
D.S. Lyngdoh “Ka Thymmei Longbriew Manbriew” (1961)
S.S. Lyngdoh “Ki Riti Khyndew ba la buh u Longshuwa Manshuwa ha Ri Bhoi” (1965)
O. Sumer “Ka Hima Ka Jingieit” (1968)
H.W. Sten “Ka Miet bad um kynjah” (1966)
B.R. Kharlukhi “Ka Waitprat ia ki Sngi Barim u Hynniewtrep” (1966)
M. Bareh “Ka Drama u Mihsngi” (1966)
D.S. Khongdup “U Baieit Donshkor” (1967)
“Na Lum Khasi” (1967)
“U Don Putit I & II” (1969)
S.J. D. Hujon “Phuit! ka Sabuit bad kiwei de ki drama”. Biography is seen in the works of D.S. Roy
T. Resto’s
Mrs. A.D. Tham
H. Sawian
T. Radborne and others.
Individual litterateurs
So So Tham
So So Tham, a Khasi Poet was born in Nongsawlia, Sohra (Cherrapunjee) in 1873. He was the first Khasi Poet who initiated secular literature. So So Tham was born as the only son of Hat Tongper (father) and Lyngkien Tham (mother), who had three more daughters. The early demise of his father leading to grinding poverty, he had to quit school after eighth standard.
Though his school education was truly little, he went on to become a brilliant high school teacher. After changing jobs several times, he finally joined as a teacher of Khasi in Shillong Government High School, Mawkhar. He worked from October 12, 1905 till his retirement in July 1931.
So So Tham was a natural poet. One can see spontaneity in his poems. He was a simple and humble person to say “I know nothing about the art of poetry. Foot, meter, rhyme, rhythm, idea – these are like the scattered bones of dead cows. Nobody taught me how to create Khasi poetry and literature.”
So So Tham’s main contribution was the two volumes of poetry that he left behind .
“Ka Duitara Ksiar” (The Golden Harp, 1925) comprising of 46 short poems including lyrics, ballads and nursery rhymes, and 14 translations of various English Poets.
“Ki Sngi Barim U Hynniew Trep” (The Olden Days of Hynniew Trep, 1936) is considered as a masterpiece of Indian literature. This is a single long poem having 181 stanzas of six lines divided into 10 sections. The poem is about the Hynniew Trep people, anscestors of the seven Khasi sub-tribes.
So So Tham translated Aesop’s Fables in to Khasi language. He also translated Charles Dickens’ “The Life of Our Lord” and the Shakespearean comedy “The Tempest”, which he titled “U Kyllang”. He is considered the greatest literary icon in the history of Khasi literature.
During his lifetime he sold his first book “Ki Phawar U Aesop” from house to house. An illiterate fan of So So Tham assisted him financially to bring out his first book of poetry “Ka Duitara Ksiar” (The Golden Harp). The intellectual community ignored him and his works, considering him a half-educated mad teacher.
So So Tham died on 18th December 1940. His contribution to Khasi literature didn’t reward him during his lifetime. A statue of So So Tham was installed only in 1975. There is one statue of So So Tham installed in Cherra Teacher Training School and one bust of him at Dukan Road Crossing in Saitsohpen, Sohra.
Popularising Khasi Literature
From
Prospect of Khasi Literature (An overview)
By Tarun Bhattacharjee, Megartsculture
Offcial recognition to Khasi Literature sought
The Khasi Authors Society has been demanding from time to time that the Sahitya Akademi, the premier apex body in Delhi should extend the long delayed recognition to Khasi Literature which has already matured over the years with substantial contributions to enrich the language to bring it at par with the other developed languages and literatures of the country.
There is enough justification in this stand as the language is old with a rich oral literature. When a script was introduced by the great pioneer missionary, Thomas Jones during the yearly forties of the 19th Century, there arose immediately many gifted writers who brought out prose, poetry and other compositions in articulated forms which contributed immensely to the shape of literature for the future.
1903
It is worth mentioning that as early as in 1903, the language was recognized in the Entrance Examination of Calcutta University when no other tribal languages were developed to caim for such an honoured acceptance. In less than two decades since then, it made another significant achievement when the same University gave recognition for the language in the Degree Course. Today, it has traveled far to be at par with other advanced languages like Assamese by admitting students for M. Phil and Ph. D courses.
Though there is no two opinions that Khasi literature has built up a strong base on the sustaining power of its language, it is to mention that to built up a powerful literature, the focus should be more on the creative writings delving deep in the present socio-economic realities. It hardly can remain stereotype and only based on fables and legends or harping on past glory. The contemporary situation in the society is more vital as literature is supposed to be the mirror, which reflects reality. This literature should be accessible to many people and should also go out of the confines of the locality through translation to elicit appreciation of others.
To build up such a literature requires assimilation of ideas from other literatures of the country and abroad. The trend is visible in many literatures of the world today as there is ever increasing demand for translations. Such an endeavour argurs well for the growth of healthy literature. It is except for those who remain within conservative thought that assimilation of ideas would appear as " Corroding influence" on its exclusive growth.
1841: Thomas Jones introduces a script
Interestingly, the Khasi language has a history of evolution unlike other tribal languages of the country and possibly of the world. To many, it might appear that the language had a beginning only after Thomas Jones introduced a script for it in 1841. Prior to that, it was least known that the language had already much developed by heavy borrowing of words from outside. Those words were not only from Bengali but surprisingly included many Persian, Urdu words. This shows that the Khasis already had great flexibility and were not at all conservative. No other tribal dialect of the region whether belonging to various groups of Arunachalees, Naga or Mizo has borrowed even a fraction of the words during the contemporary period. This is certainly unique in he history of evolution of Khasi literature.
There is unusual view that the Khasi language owes its growth and development only from the time of the colonial era as earlier it had no script and so the question of literature did not arise. But this is a fallacious view as sufficiently enriched oral literature was already in existence. In the history of literatures, there had been many instances where written scripts came much later. In parts of India, stories and fables or even serious discourses were spread by word of mouth from generation to generation. Even now in certain remote and isolated parts of the country, sacred texts are still not reduced to writing as these are presumed to be divinely ordained!
As already mentioned, to build up a powerful literature, a great deal of flexibility is essentially required. There cannot be rigidity as unfortunately till recently the trend in Hindi literature had shown by divesting its association from a rich language like Urdu and leaning too heavily on borrowing liberally from Sanskrit. To cite an example, the official 'Rastrabhasa', is so much overloaded with words from Sanskrit that it becomes ludicrous as hardly any common people in the Hindi-speaking belt communicate in such overloaded language.
As for instance, Bengali, the language of 170 million Bengalese was a non-starter hardly 150 years ago. The literature was then wholly unintellible to the common people because of extreme prosaic narrations. There was a hilarious comment that any one, who made an attempt to read a text, invariably broke a tooth! Later, the transformation was dramatic with the beginning of the renaissance. It was Tagore who revolutionized the entire concept by making it intelligible to the common people. Heavy borrowing of words from many languages including English today has enriched the Bengali language.
It is true also in respect of many other regional languages of India. The trend is discernible as more and more translation works are appearing in Prose, Poetry, Scientific treatise etc. to keep in touch with the contemporary world. Interestingly, one can find in the Oxford Dictionary these days, many Indian words incorporated into the English language.
It is for the Khasi authors to think anew to incorporate ideas from other literatures. A god deal of translation from other developed languages including English can be much helpful.
When literature is focused more and more on creative writings then it will be only a question of time when others will evince an interest on it. To get a wider readership, the Khasi authors must develop a broader perspective i.e. the works of Khasi literature have good materials for translation to other languages. Mere recognition by Sahitya Akademi will not suffice. It can at best fulfill an aspiration but the goal should be set aside to popularize the literature outside its own arena.
Creative literature is explicit in its meaning that it is concerned with social realities. Much talked of corruption, unemployment and collateral maladies, which afflict the function of a civil society, should arouse the consciousness of the people. Literature and society are not independent of each other rather they are correlated. The aim of literature is to create an ideal society and society too should endeavour to develop healthy existence influenced by the thought process. The end result is social awakeness.
A creative writer can find a theme from every day life. In fact, there is no dearth in finding a story line. The Assamese writer, Late Norode Chowdhury is well known as a creative writer. In one of his stories, which is apparently not fiction as such happenings are not uncommon in present day life, he relates about an unemployed youth desperately in search of a job. Unknown to him, his uncle, a smuggler, enticed him with good remuneration to function as a courier, to ferry a briefcase everyday to a town. One day, out of curiosity, he opens the lid of the briefcase only to find to his horror that it was full of contraband articles. In utter disgust, he leaves the job immediately but only to land again in the jobless market.
When he is passing through the agonizing days, some time later, during an early morning walk he goes to a restaurant for a cup of tea. Near the table, there are two persons having hush hush talks. As he strains his ears, he hears that one of the colleagues in the offices who expired had just been cremated. Losing no time, he immediately rushes to his house, drafts an application, praying for the post just fallen vacant! But to his utter dismay, the reply came with a note of regret that vacancy in the meantime had already been filled up!
There is another story by the well-known Bengali writer, Manoj Basu. Here, the writer wielded his powerful pen to narrate the picture of a decadent society. Two notorious thugs, whom every one hated and feared, suddenly became the 'heroes' in the locality. Earlier, their very appearance in the vicinity was enough to scare the people and all doors, windows in the houses werw quickly shut. It happened some time later that there was an outbreak of a communal riot. These thugs butchered a person of another community. There was instant jubilation in the locality, as two thugs arrived and were acclaimed 'heroes'! Ladies vied with each other to feed them sweets and doors were opened in the houses!
These stories are relevant as such incidences are not unfamiliar here also. The job of a creative writer is to weave a story by realistic portrayal.
Literature encompasses also arts and culture. So far, there has been no worthwhile contribution in making art films. It will depend on powerful story lines. An art film based on a powerful story line and with appropriate direction and technical backup will be immensely popular after dubbing in English and possible in regional languages. One need not follow common gimmickry of trash Hindi films, which are after all not part of healthy literature.
There is one last word to be said for popularising Khasi literature. A good glossy tabloid printed in offset printing press, reasonably priced, may be brought out. Initially, it might be a costly affair but a consortium may be formed to generate capital. Later, with the gain of circulation and advertisements, the cost can be recovered. The tabloid can be in the similar pattern of mass circulated regional magazines, which features short stories, serialized novels, poems, miscellany topics like sports, science etc. Undoubtedly, such a magazine will be much popular in Khasi houses.
See also
Khasi Literature
