Musalman: Sholapur

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Musalmans Sholapur

This is an extract from a British Raj gazetteer pertaining to Sholapur that seems to have been written in 1884. If a census has been cited but its year of not given, 1881 may be assumed.

Musalmans

Musalma'ns returned at 43,949 or 7.54 per cent of the population are found all over the district. They include forty-three subdivisions, seventeen of which, all with a foreign element marry together and form the main body of regular Musalmans, and twenty-six of local and apparently unmixed Hindu origin form distinct communities. The foreign element includes strains of Arab, Abyssinian, Persian, Moghal, and Upper and South Indian blood. It dates from the early spread of Islam probably as far back as the eighth century after Christ. Under the Bashtrakutas of Malkhed [Maikhed the old Rashtrakuta capital is in the Nizam's country, about ninety miles south-east of Sholapur.] (760-973) considerable numbers of Arabs, coming as horse dealers and adventurers were persuaded to take service and settle in the country. [Thana Statistical Account, Bombay Gazetteer. XIII, 431.434. Elliot and Dewson, I. 24, 34, 69.] The employment of foreign mercenaries under the Hindu chiefs seems to have become general, and, by the end of the thirteenth century, the practice of engaging men from the west and from the north was usual. Besides traders and soldiers, from the earliest times (640) Arab missionaries found their way into the Deccan and spread Islam among its Hindu inhabitants. According to a Hindu tale, a large body of Momins or cotton weavers were converted in the thirteenth century by an Arab missionary Khwaja Syed Husein Gaisudaraz, better known as Khwaja Mukdam Gesudaraz of Gulburga. The conquest of the Deccan at the close of the thirteenth century (A.D. 1294), and, a few years later, Muhammad Tughlik's attempt to make Daulatabad the capital of his empire brought to the Deccan large numbers of foreign and Upper Indian Musalmans. Under the Bahmani (A.D. 1347-1490) and Bijapur (A.D. 1490-1686) dynasties though few of their kings favoured its forcible spread, Islam steadily gained in strength by the zeal of Arab missionaries, and by the constant streams of Turks, Arabs, Persians, and Abyssinians who came to West India to seek service at the courts of the Deccan kings. The fall of Bijapur in 1686 introduced two new Musalman elements, one foreign the other local. Of the foreign element Moghale and Upper Indians few traces remain as almost all have probably been drawn to Haidarabad the centre of Moghal power. Many of the separate communities say that they owe their conversion to Aurangzeb.[Almost all separate Hindu convert classes state that their forefathers were converted either by Aurangzeb or by Tipu of Maisur. It is probable that several of these classes are older converts and that they trace their conversion to Aurangzeb or to Tipu because these are the two best known of Musalman rulers.] In the eighteenth century, in spite of the decline of the Musalman power, considerable numbers of Arabs were attracted to the service under the Maratha chiefs and the fall of the Musalman kingdom of Maisur in 1799 brought some Musalman adventurers to the Deccan during the early years of the present century either as merchants or as camp followers. Most of the mercenaries disappeared from the Deccan districts on the establishment of the British power in 1818. But the Kakars, Bedras, beef-butchers, Mukris, and other camp followers remain chiefly in Sholapur town and cantonment. Most of them have a tradition that they came to their present settlements with General Weliesley's army in 1803, but it is probable that so long as the Deccan continued to be garrisoned from Madras newcomers from the south settled at the different military stations and daring the last fifty years a small number of Bohora and Momin traders from Gujarat and Cutch have settled in the Sholapur cantonment.

Except that the men wear the beard, the local converts differ little in appearance from Sholapur Hindus. As a rule, the communities of outside or of part-outside origin are larger-boned and fairer-skinned and have sharper and more marked features and lighter eyes than the corresponding classes of Hindus. The women show fewer traces of foreign blood and in many cases can hardly be distinguished from Hindu women. Except a few villagers who speak Marathi and Kanarese, and the fresh settlers from Gujarat and Cutch who speak Gujarati, and from Persia and Arabia, who speak Persian and Arabic, the home-tongue of the main body of the Sholapur Musalmans is Hindustani, spoken either correctly or with a mixture of Marathi, Gujarati, or Kanarese words. Those of local origin speak either Marathi or Hindustani abroad. Of the town Musalmans Bohoras, Memons, mutton-butchers, and Momins live in two-storeyed well built houses with stone and mortar walls and tiled or flat roofs. These houses as a rule have a surrounding court-yard, and several rooms furnished in European style and have a large store of china ware and of brass and copper vessels. The bulk of the town Musalman houses are one storeyed and flat roofed, many of which have a front and back enclosure surrounded, by a stone wall four or five feet high. The houses of the well-to-do have walls of cut stone and mortar, a frame of good timber and roofs lined with cement; the walls are whitewashed every sixth month and the floor is cleaned with cowdung every fortnight. The poor houses are built with rough stone and clay, and have earth roofs and scanty timber. Village Musalman houses are built in much the same style as poor town houses, and have generally three rooms, one in front, perhaps the largest, is used as a stable for their cattle, the middle one as a bed room, and the third as a kitchen. Poor town and village Musalmans have no taste for European furniture. Their house goods include low stools, bedding, carpets, quilts, one or two cots, boxes, and a few copper and brass vessels tinned both inside and outside. The well-to-do keep a woman servant and two men servants, and keep She-buffaloes, cows, and sometimes horses. Middle class and poor families have no servants but rear cattle and goats. Except a few of the newly come Bohora and Meman settlers none eat wheat. The staple food of the majority of the Sholapur Musalmans is rice, millet, pulse, and vegetables, with chillies and tamarind. Husbandmen as a rule take three meals a day, breakfast about seven in the morning, dinner about midday while they are in their fields, and supper on returning home in the evening. As a rule all Musalmans take two meals a day, breaking their fast about ten in the morning with millet bread, pulse, and hot dishes and sapping at eight at night. Well-to-do families daily eat rice, mutton or beef, vegetables, pulse, milk, eggs, fowls, and fish. Almost all Deccan Musalmans eat more chillies than other Musalmans. Musalmans as a rule use all kinds of usual animal food including beef, but they eschew the flesh of the buffalo and the pig. In addition to the two main meals the well-to-do men drink tea with bread about seven in the morning and some drink coffee at night. Poor Musalmans cannot afford mutton or beef daily, but almost all have it on Bakar Id, Ramzan, and Shabebarat and other great days. In spite of the religious rules against-intoxicating drinks Sholapur Musalmans drink both imported wines and spirits and country liquor. Of other stimulants and narcotics, tobacco is smoked by almost all and snuff is taken by old men. Opium and hemp are smoked and drunk by religious mendicants and servants, and the artisan classes, almost all of whom are of local descent, use fermented date palm juice in large quantities. As a rule most men of the Shaikh and Syed classes wear a headscarf or dupeta, a long overcoat, a shirt, a waistcloth, and loose trousers.

The Labbays dress in the same way as the Shaikhs or Syeds except that they wear the lungi or waistcloth instead of trousers. Middle class and poor men dress in a pair of trousers or a waistcloth, a shirt, a coat, a Maratha turban, and a pair of shoes. Except Bohoras and Memans who dress in a backless short-sleeved bodice with a petticoat and a pair of trousers, all Sholapur Musalman women wear the Maratha robe and bodice without passing the skirt of the robe back between the feet. Except the Bohoras who wear a large cloak that covers the face and figure, they have no special outdoor dress, but they wrap themselves up in a white sheet covering the head and the upper part of the body to the waist, when they go out of doors. Both men and women have a store of fine clothes for great occasions. Their ornaments are the same as the ornaments of the Poona and Ahmadnagar Musalmans. [Details are given in the Poona and Ahmadnagar Statistical Accounts.] Except the traders weavers and other classes of craftsmen, the bulk of the town Musalmans are somewhat idle, given to drink and good living, and improvident; of the villagers, the husbandmen especially are hardworking, orderly, and thrifty. Of town Musalmans some are tradesmen and a good many are craftsmen. The bulk are soldiers, constables, messengers, and servants. Of the village Musalmans, the greater number are husbandmen and the rest craftsmen. The women add nothing to the family income among traders, soldiers, messengers, constables, and servants, but among husbandmen, and weavers and other craftsmen, the women earn as much as the men. Traders and some weavers and husbandmen are well-to-do; but as a class the Sholapur Musalmans are badly off, as they have not yet been able to make up the losses they have suffered during the 1876-77 famine and many craftsmen have to sell their goods to pay debts incurred, as the demand for their articles was then very slack. Sameness in faith, worship, manners and customs binds the Musalmans into one body. Except the bodies of Musalman converts who have either never given up or who have again reverted to Hindu practices all are Sunnis by faith, worship at the same mosques, perform the same ceremonies and employ the same kazis. Among the local converts the Bohoras who are Ismaili Shias of the Daudi sect have a separate mosque and never pray in the regular Sunni mosque. Another irregular sect are the Ghair Mahadis or Anti-Mahadis who hold that the expected Saviour or Imam has come in the person of Muhamad Mahadi who lived in North India during the fifteenth century; and the Wahabis who would do away with the worship of saints and with all respect for religious doctors. Among the special communities the Bakar Kasabs or mutton-butchers, the Bagbans or fruiterers, the Pinjaras or cotton teasers, the Sikalgars or armourers, the Gavandis or masons, the Dhobis or washermen, and Pakhalis or water-carriers have such strong Hindu leanings that they do not associate with other Musalmans, almost never come to the mosques, eschew beef, keep Hindu feasts and openly worship and offer vows to the Hindu gods. Of the regular Musalmans about ten per cent teach their children to read the Kuran. Almost all Musalmans are careful to observe the circumcision of their male children, and the initiation or bismillah, and to have their marriage and death ceremonies performed by the kazi or judge, or by the mulla or priest.

Though as a rule they do not attend daily prayers, almost all Sholapur Musalmans attend public prayers on the Ramzan and Bakar Ids, and are careful to give alms to the poor and to pay the kazi his dues. Their religious officers are the kazi or judge, now chiefly the marriage registrar, thekhatib or preacher, the mulla or priest, the mujavar or beadle, the bangi or caller to prayer. Under Musalman rule the kazi was the civil and criminal judge, but, except that he leads the public prayers on the days of the Ramzan and Bakar Ids, he is now little more than a marriage and divorce registrar. [In the town of Sholapur the kazi either himself attends marriages or sends his deputy naib who is paid one-quarter from the kazi's fee, and one-half in villages.] In spite of the loss of his most important functions the kazi holds a high place in the Musalman community. [Under the 1880 Kazis Act Government have appointed two kazisat Sholapur, one for the cantonment and the other for the native town and the district. The town kazi has an hereditary title and has quit-rent or jagir land. His ordinary fee varies from 5s. to 10s. (Rs.2½-5).] The mulla or priest who is a deputy of the kazi, generally appointed by him, conducts marriage and death ceremonies at villagers' houses and kills animals both for Hindus and Musalmans. The Marathas as a rule do not themselves kill sheep and goats or eat the flesh of animals killed by any one except by mullas. The mulla holds a free grant of land or is yearly paid in grain by the villagers, besides what he gets for conducting marriages and deaths at the villager's, after having paid the kazi three-fourths of the proceeds. Most of these mullas are illiterate and know only thrice to repeat bismillah or In Allah's Name on the knife before it is used in cutting the animal's throat. For this as a rule he is paid ⅜d. to 1½ d. (¼ -1 a.) for each goat or sheep. [Before killing an animal a Musalman is required to express the following wish or niyat either in Arabic or in his mother-tongue; 'I being desirous to bring into proper and lawful Use this creature of Allah kill this bird, or beast; that it may become pure and lawful for us to eat by the truth that Allah is all-pawerful and Muhammad is his prophet.' After repeating these words the knife should be passed three times over the animal's throat.

To separate the head from the neck is considered wrong but it does not make the animal haram or unlawful.] The mujavar or beadle is either a hereditary servant at the shrine of a Saint employed by the descendants of the saint or a descendant himself when the income of the shrine is small. He keeps the shrine clean and lives on the offerings that are made to the saint. When the worshipper brings offerings to the shrine, the beadle burns frankincense before the saint's tomb and lays the offerings at the top of the tomb. He then asks the saint to give his blessing to the worshipper and divides the offerings into two parts, keeping one for himself and handing the other to the worshipper with a pinch of frankincense ashes. The religious teachers of the Sholapur Musalmans are called pirjadas or descendants of saints. They live at Belgaum, Bijapur, or Gulburga, and come yearly or once in two or three years to gather their dues from their worshippers. As a class pirjadas are lazy, unthrifty, and uneducated, and most of them are fond of intoxicating drinks and drugs. They live on the produce of their quit-rent lands and funds raised by contribution among their followers or worshippers, and do not preach their doctrines or make new converts. The followers or worshippers of the same saint or pir love each other so well that each follower looks upon his fellow-disciple as a brother or sister calling each otherpirbhai or religious brother, or pirbhain or religious sister. When a Musalman wishes to become a disciple of a pirjada he has to give a money present or nazrana of 10s. to £2 10s. (Rs.5-25) and a dinner party to his religious teacher, who enrolls the new worshipper's name in his list of followers and gives him in return a paper roll of genealogical tables containing the names of the teacher's ancestors. The worshippers value these tables even more than life, and, especially among the lower classes they are buried with the dead under the belief that the names mentioned in the tables may relieve the dead from the agonies of hell. All Musalmans except the Bohoras and Wahabis believe in saints or pirs and offer them vows when they are sick or in difficulty. Most of the artisan classes and husbandmen also either privately or publicly worship the Hindu gods and goddesses and make vows to Mhasoba, Satvai, and Yallamma. The Sholapur Musalmans make pilgrimages to Bijapur, Poona, and Gulburga and believe in witchcraft soothsaying and evil spirits. The chief ceremonies among the Sholapur Musalmans are at birth, circumcision, marriage, puberty, and death. Town Musalmans marry their boys between fifteen and twenty and their girls before they come of age. Village Musalmans marry their children earlier than townsmen, and, except that they are less expensive village Musalman marriages are a counterpart of town Musalman marriages. Except that many Sholapur Musalmans have ceased to perform the betrothal ceremony since the 1876-77 famine, their customs are the same as those of Poona Musalmans.

A few send their boys to school and teach them to read the Kuran. About twenty per cent of town Musalmans, including traders and Government servants, teach their boys Marathi and Urdu and sometimes English. Almost all village Musalmans make their sons begin to work as soon as they are eight or nine. Meman and Bohora boys learn Arabic enough to read the Kuran and also Gujarati and Urdu. On the whole, the town Musalmans are fairly off and except a few craftsmen, the village Musalmans are poor. The forty-three classes of Sholapur Musalmans may be arranged into two groups, four main classes and thirteen minor classes who intermarry, differ little in look dress and customs, and together form one body; and twenty-seven separate communities most of which are distinct in matters of marriage and have some peculiar or irregular customs or dress. The main body of Musalmans who intermarry and differ little in look dress or customs, besides the four main classes of Syeds Shaikhs Moghals and Pathans, include thirteen minor classes, of whom the Wahabis are a separate religious sect, the Bedras are traders, the Atars or perfumers are shopkeepers, and seven classes, including Barutgars or firework makers, Kafshgars or embroiderers, Kalaigars or tinners, Manyars or bracelet makers, Rafugars or tailors, Rangrez or dyers, and Sutars or carpenters are craftsmen, and two classes Mahawats or elephant drivers and Sarbans or camel drivers are servants. Of the twenty-six separate communities six are of non-local origin, of whom four Bohoras and Memans from Gujarat, Labbays from the Malabar coast, and Mukris from Maisur are traders, and two Kakars or Afghans and Pendharis are dealers in ponies. Of the twenty-one separate communities of local origin one is a religious sect of Ghair Mahadis, four Bagbans or fruiterers, Bojgars or millet beer sellers, Tambolis or betel sellers, and Bhadbhunjas or parched grain dealers are shopkeepers, two Bhois or fishers and Kanjars or fowlers are animal dealers; nine Bakar Kasabs or mutton-butchers, Gai Kasabs or beef-butchers, Gavandis or masons, Momins or weavers, Pinjaris or cotton teasers, Patvegars or silk weavers, Rachbharas or Raibharas literally reed-fillers that is weavers, Sikligars or armourers, and Saltangars or leather dyers are craftsmen; one Darweshis or wild beast keepers are tigrer and bear showmen: and four Bhatyaras or cooks, Dhobis or washermen, Halalkhors or sweepers, and Pakhalis or water-carriers are servants. Of the four leading divisions of Musalmans Moghals, Pathans, Shaikhs, and Syeds, all except Moghals are large communities whose members are found throughout the district.

Moghals

Moghals are found in small numbers over the whole district especially in the town of the Sholapur. They claim descent from the Moghal conquerors of the Deccan in the seventeenth century (Ahmadnagar 1628 and Bijapur in 1686). By intermarriage, and probably because many of them are local converts who took the name Moghal from, their patron or leader, they have entirely lost their foreign appearance. Their home-tongue is Hindustani, and, like Shaikhs and Syeds whom they are similar to in look, they speak Marathi and' Kanarese with the local Hindus. The men add mirza or beg to their names and the women bibi to theirs. The men shave the head and wear the beard full, and, except that they wear a Maratha turban, their dress is the same as the Syed's or Shaikh's. The women who wear the Maratha robe and bodice add nothing to the family income and never appear in public. They are constables, servants, messengers, and husbandmen, and are hardworking and thrifty but badly off and in debt. They are Hanafi Sunnis and religious and marry their daughters to Pathans, Shaikhs, and Syeds. They teach their children to read the Kuran and send them to school but are very poor.

Pathans

Patha'ns, found over the whole district in large numbers, are said to be the descendants of the Afghan mercenaries and military leaders who conquered or took service in the Deccan, or of the local converts who took the name of their leader. The men are tall, dark, or olive-skinned well made and strong. They shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress in a turban or headscarf, a shirt, a waistcoat, and a pair of tight trousers. The women are well built and regular featured and dress in the Maratha robe and bodice. The men addkhan to their names. Their home-tongue is Hindustani and they speak Kanarese and Marathi abroad. The women do not appear in public, and do nothing but mind the house. The town Pathans are soldiers, constables, messengers, and servants, and the village Pathans are husbandmen. Though hardworking and thrifty most of them still suffer from the effects of the 1876-77 famine. They do not differ from Syeds and Shaikhs or Moghals in their social and religious customs and give their daughters to and take wives from these three classes. They are Sunnis but are very careless about saying their prayers. They send their children to school.

Shaikhs

Shaikhs in theory belong to three leading Kuraish families, the Sidikis who claim descent from Abu Bakar Sidik, the Fakirs who claim descent from Umar al Faruk, and the Abbasis who claim descent from Abbas one of the prophet's nine uncles. In fact the bulk of the Shaikhs are chiefly if not entirely of local descent. The men take Shaikh or Muhammad before their names and women add bibi or lady to theirs. They do not differ from Syeds in look and Jike them speak Hindustani at home. The men shave the head or let the hair grow and wear full beards. The town Shaikhs wear a headscarf or dupeta or Hindu turban, a shirt, and a pair of tight trousers, and the village Shaikhs a turban, waistcoat, and a waistcloth. The women, who differ little in appearance from high class Hindu women, dress in the Maratha robe and bodice, and, except the poor and villagers, do not appear in public or add to the family income. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits. The men are husbandmen, soldiers, constables, messengers, and servants, and are hardworking and thrifty. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are religious and careful to repeat their prayers. They respect the kazi and employ him to conduct and register their marriages. They have no special organisation and marry either among themselves or with any of the leading Musalmans. They teach their boys to read the Kuran and send them to vernacular schools.

Syeds

Syeds, or Elders, are said to have settled in the district from the beginning of Musalman rule in the Deccan. Their home-tongue is Hindustani but they speak both Marathi and Kanarese fluently. As a rule Syeds are larger-boned and better featured than the local Musalmans, and their women are fair and delicate featured. The men shave the head and wear the beard and dress in a headscarf or dupeta, a shirt, a waistcoat, and an overcoat hanging to the knees, a waistcloth, or a pair of loose trousers. The women wear the Hindu robe and bodice, and neither appear in public nor add to the family income. As a class they are clean, neat, honest, hardworking, and thrifty. They are landholders, religious teachers, soldiers, constables, and servants. They are fond of ease. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and are religious and careful to say their prayers. They respect and obey the kaziand keep no Hindu customs. They have no special organisation and except that they occasionally marry their daughters to Shaikhs and take to wives the daughters of the regular Musalmans, they marry only among their own class. They send their boys to school and teach them to read the Kuran and Marathi books. Special Communities. Twelve classes who are separate in name only and marry with the four general divisions and with each other form part of the main body of Sholapur Musalmans.

Atars

Ata'rs, or Perfumers, all local converts, are found in small numbers in Sholapur and other towns and large villages. They are middle-sized, dark, and well built, and speak Hindustani at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. Except that they sometimes wear the waistcloth instead of trousers, the men dress in the same way as Pathans or Moghals. The women appear in public and help the men in their work. They sit at the shop when the men are away. They are clean, neat, honest, hardworking, and thrifty. Atars are dealers in scented oils and powders, but they lost greatly during the 1876-77 famine and many have since abandoned their craft and taken to earn their living as constables and messengers. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and their customs differ little from those of regular Musalmans. They are religious, obey and respect the kazi, and marry with the regular Musalmans. They teach their children to read the Kuran and send their boys to local schools.

Barutgars

Barutgars, or Firework Makers, a class of local converts are found in Sholapur town. They rank them selves with Shaikhs and their home-tongue is Hindustani. Of middle height, strongly made and dark or olive-skinned, they are clean, neat, and hardworking. The men dress in a turban, a shirt, a waistcoat, a pair of trousers, and shoes, and the women in a Maratha robe and bodice. The women appear in public and help the men in their work besides minding the house. Barutgars are firework makers and their trade is brisk in the fair season especially at Divali and during the marriage time. The Shabebarat holidays also bring them a good deal of work. They work to order, and a few among them are constables, messengers, and servants. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of other regular Musalmans. They belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis and are careful to say their prayers. They marry among ordinary Musalmans and have no separate community. They do not send their children to school and are a falling class.

Bedras

Bedras, immigrants from Maisur, are found in small numbers in the town and cantonment of Sholapur. They are converts from the great Bedaru tribe of hunters and husbandmen and were converted by and were in the service of Haidar Ali, and are said to have come to Sholapur in 1803 with Colonel Wellesley's army. They speak Hindustani at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. They are tall, middle-sized, well made, and fair. The men shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress in a headscarf, a long loose-sleeved shirt, a waistcoat, and loose trousers. The women dress in the Maratha robe and bodice and do no work except minding the house. They are traders and servants and being sober, hardworking, and thrifty are well-to-do. They rank with the Pathans and marry with both Shaikhs and Pathans. They are religious and differ little from other Musalmans in customs. They teach their children to read the Kuran and send their sons to the local vernacular schools.

Kafshgars

Kafshgars, or Shoemakers, are local converts found in small numbers in the town and cantonment of Sholapur only. The men are wheat-coloured and middle-sized and shave their head but wear the beard full. The Kafshgar's home-tongue is Hindustani but they speak Marathi or Kanarese abroad, and, except that the men sometimes wear trousers, their ordinary dress does not differ from that of Maratha Kunbis. Their women appear in public and mind the house. Kafshgars are makers of the embroidered red or yellow broadcloth shoes which are generally worn by Musalman married women for one or two years after marriage. Since the 1876-77 famine many shoemakers have left their trade for Government service as constables and messengers. Kafshgars marry with the lower classes of Musalmans and do not form a separate community. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and obey thekazi, but are not careful to say their prayers. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of regular Musalmans, They do not Bend their children to school and are a decaying class.

Kalaigars

Kala'igars, or Tinners, all local converts, are found in small numbers all over the district. In look, dress, speech, character, and religion they are similar to Kafshgars and their customs are the same as regular Musalman customs. As a class they are hardworking and thrifty and their women do not appear in public or help them in their work. They tin copper and brass vessels and are chiefly employed by Musalmans and Europeans who pay them 8s. to 10s. (Rs. 4-5) the hundred Vessels. A few are constables and messengers and some are servants. They belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis and have no special organisation. They are religious and careful to say their prayers and send their boys to school.

Mahawats

Maha'wats, or Elephant Drivers, the descendants of local converts, are found in the cantonment of Sholapur. In look, speech, dress, character, and customs they resemble regular Musalmans. Since they have found their services in less demand than before the British rule, they have become husbandmen, messengers, and servants. They are religious and send their boys to school and teach them to read the Kuran. They are fairly off.

Manyars

Manya'rs, or Bangle Sellers, the descendants of local converts, are found in small numbers in towns. They resemble other regular Musalmans in speech, look, dress, and character, and are neat, clean, hardworking, and thrifty. Their women do not appear in public, but, besides minding the house, help the men in their calling. The Manyars sell glass and wax bangles and deal in hardware. They buy their articles wholesale from the local Hindu traders and Bohoras and sell them retail. They are religious and their social and religious customs are the same as those of regular Musalmans. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits. Their calling is well paid and they are fairly off. ==Rafugars==. Rafugars, or Darners, descendants of local converts, are found in small numbers in the town and cantonment of Sholapur. They rank themselves with Shaikhs and are similar to them in look, speech, dress, and character. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are careful to say their prayers and obey and respect their kazi. Their social and religious customs are the same as Shaikh customs. Besides darners many are soldiers, constables, and servants. Though hardworking and thrifty as a class they are badly off. They do not send their boys to school and are poor.

Rangrez

Rangrez, or Dyers, descendants of local converts, are found in towns only. They are middle-sized, strong and well built and their women are fair and regular featured. Their home-tongue is Hindustani and they are neat, clean, and hardworking. In look and dress they resemble regular Musalmans and their women appear in public and help in preparing colours besides minding the house. They dye robes, turbans, scarfs, and constable's trousers. Their calling is well paid and their trade is brisk in the fair weather especially during the marriage months and the Divali and Shimga holidays. They belong to the Hanafi. Sunni sect but are very careless in saying their prayers. They have no separate organisation and their social and religious customs do not differ from those of regular Musalmans. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits. But their calling is well paid and they are fairly off.

Sarbans

Sa'rba'ns, or Camel Drivers, are descendants of local converts of the Hindu class of the same name and are found in the town of Sholapur. They are dark, middle-sized, regular featured and strong, and their home-tongue is Hindustani. Both men and women dress like Marathas. Their women appear in public, and, except that they mind the house, do not help the men in their work. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits, but, though hardworking and thrifty, they are seldom well-to-do. Under the British Government the demand for their services has fallen, and many have taken to new pursuits. Some are constables and a few are messengers and servants. They are religious and belong to the Hanafi sect or Sunnis. They teach their children to read the Kuran and do not differ from regular Musalmans in religious or social customs. They are a poor class. None of them have risen to any high position under the British.

Sutars

Suta'rs, or Carpenters, descendants of local converts from the Sutar caste, are found in the town and cantonment of Sholapur. In look and speech they resemble regular Musalmans, and, except that they do not wear the trousers and that their clothes are dirty, their ordinary dress does not differ from the Shaikh or Pathan dress. The women dress in the Maratha robe and bodice, appear in public, and do nothing but mind the house. They are carpenters and earn £1 4s. to £3 (Rs. 12-30) a month. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but are careless of fulfilling their religious duties. They practise all the regular Musalman observances and have no special community rules for themselves. They do not send their boys to school. They are hardworking and well paid but they are given to drinking country liquor and are badly off.

Wahabis

There are two or three Wahabi preachers in the town of Sholapur who try to persuade the people to join their sect. The movement has not met with the support of the learned or rich and has made little progress. Their converts are chiefly from Mnkris, Pendharis, and a few betel-sellers, all of them ignorant and illiterate. Still these converts have received their doctrines with great care and readiness and have begun to attend regularly five times a day in the mosques for prayers. Of the twenty-six separate communities, the four of non-local origin are:

Bohoras

Bohora's mostly immigrants from Gujarat are found in small numbers in the town of Sholapur. They are partly of Hindu and partly of Arab and Persian origin, and are said to have come from Gujarat to Sholapur about forty years ago. Their home-tongue is Gujarati and they speak Hindustani abroad. They are thin tall and fair, the men shave the head and wear full beards and dress in a white turban, a long white Gujarat Hindu coat, a shirt falling below the knee, and a pair of loose trousers of white or striped cotton. The women, who are delicate fair-skinned and regular featured, dress in a coloured cotton or silk petticoat, a backless short-sleeved bodice, and a coloured cotton headscarf. When they go out of doors they throw a dark cloak over their head which covers the body to the ankles, with gauze openings for the eyes. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits and have a large store of Chinaware and copper vessels. All are shopkeepers dealing in English hardware, drugs, and piece-goods, and make tin pots and looking glasses. They buy their articles through agents in Bombay. As a class they are honest, hardworking, and well-to-do; the women do nothing but mind the house. They marry among themselves alone, and, though they dine with other Musalmans, they form an altogether separate community. In religion they are Shias of the Ismaili sect, believe in the twelve Imams or saints, and hold in great respect the Mulla Saheb of Surat, the high priest of their faith. One of the rich traders of their community is appointed the Mulla Saheb's deputy at Sholapur, and collects the high priest's dues which vary from 2s. (Re. 1) to the fifth of each man's income. They have a separate mosque where they preach without the help of any priest. Though they do not associate with ordinary Musalmans there is no great difference in their customs and observances. Their chief peculiarity is that their month begins with the full-moon and their feast and fast days fall a fortnight before those of the Sunnis. They send their children to ordinary Mulla schools where they learn to read the Kuran, and teach them Gujarati at home. They are a rising class.

Gaikasabs

Ga'ikasa'bs, or Beef-butchers, descendants of local converts, are found in small numbers in the Sholapur cantonment. They say their forefathers were converted by Tipu Sultan (1783-1799) and came to Sholapur with General Wellesley's camp. Their home-tongue is Hindustani. Except that they wear the beard full, in look and dress beef-butchers resemble mutton-butchers. The women dress in a robe and bodice, appear in public, and help in selling beef. Both men and women are dirty and untidy in their habits. They kill both cows and buffaloes buying cows at £1 to £1 10s. (Rs. 10 -15) each and buffaloes at 10s. to £1 (Rs. 5 -10). They have fixed shops and sell beef to Musalmans and Christians, and buffalo flesh to a few Christians and Musalmans and to Mhars, Bhangis, Mangs, and other low-caste Hindus. They sell cow beef at 1½d. to 3d. (1 -2 as.) a pound and buffalo beef at ¾d. to 1½d. (½ -1 a.) a pound. They sell the hides to the local Chambhars. They are hardworking but extremely fond of date palm juice, and are seldom well-to-do. They have no separate organisation and their customs are the same as those of ordinary Musalmans. They belong to the Hanafi school of Sunnis in name only as they are said to be very careless in repeating their prayers. They are illiterate themselves, and do not send their children to school, and are a poor class.

Mehmans

Mehma'ns, [The Catch Mehmans through whom probably the Halai Mehmans changed their faith are said to have been converted to Islam in Sind in 1422 by an Arab missionary named Yusufudin a descendant of the celebrated saint Mohidin Jilani commonly known as the saint of saints or piran pir. Yusnfudin succeeded at first in winning over two leading men of the Lohana caste named Hansraj and Sundarji, and a large number of Lohanas the friends and relations of the two followed them and thus a separate community was formed with Sundarji or Adamji as he was called after his conversion at their head. About a hundred and twenty years after, in 1514, a large body of Musalmans moved from Sind to Cutch which since then has become the head-quarters of the Mehmans or Momins.] properly Momins or Believers, immigrants from Cutch have two houses in Sholapur town. They are chiefly descended from converts of the Cutch Lohana caste and are said to have come to Sholapur from Bombay within the last sixty years. Their home-tongue is a mixture of Cutchi and Hindustani and they speak Hindustani abroad. They are tall, fair, and well made. The men shave the head and wear the beard full They dress in a headscarf, a long overcoat, a waistcoat, a long shirt falling to the knees, and a pair of loose trousers. Their women are delicate, fair, and regular featured, and dress in a headscarf, a long silken shirt falling to the ankles, and a pair of loose silk trousers. They seldom wear the bodice. They do not appear in public, and mind the house only. As a class they are clean, neat, and hardworking and deal in English cloth, furniture, and other Europe articles. They marry among themselves only, and form a distinct community but have no separate class organisation and no headman. They respect and obey the kazi of the ordinary Musalmans and associate with them in every respect. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are careful to say their prayers. They teach their children to read the Kuran. Many men learn to read and write Marathi, but none of them knows English, but as a class they are hardworking and thrifty and as their calling is well paid they are a well-to-do and rising class.

Mukris

Mukris said to mean Deniers, are found in small numbers over the whole district. They are immigrants from Maisur and are said to be descendants of Hindus of the Laman tribe who were converted by Tipu Sultan (1785 -1799). They call themselves Patans or people from Seringapatam and seem to have got the name Mukris or Deniers for their proverbial dishonesty. [Regarding the origin of these people the story is told that a servant of Tipu. Sultan bought a quarter or man of corn from a Mukri and found 10 lbs. (5 shers) less On weighing it at home. He brought the fact to the notice of the Sultan who sent for the corn dealer and demanded an explanation. The Mukri denied the fact and made the full weight in the presence of the king who had twice weighed the corn before and had found it short. The king was embarrassed and had nothing to say against the man, and gave him the name Denier.] They say they came to Sholapur with General Wellesley's army in 1803. [These and other classes probably came with General Munro in 1818 not in 1803.] Their home-tongue is Hindustani. They are tall, dark, strong, and regular featured. The men wear full beards and dress in a loosely tied particoloured headscarf, a shirt, a waistcoat, and a pair of tight trousers or a waistcloth. The women who are tall like the men but fairer and thinner, except that the old women among them wear a Maratha robe and bodice, dress in a headscarf, a bodice, and a striped cotton petticoat; they are clean and neat, appear in public and mind the house only. The men have no taste for showy furniture and deal in corn, sugar, molasses, and other groceries, which they buy wholesale and sell retail. They are proverbial cheats, and being hardworking and thrifty are well-to-do. They form a separate community with a headman called chaudhari generally chosen by the caste people from among the richer families. The chaudhari punishes breaches of social rules with fines and caste feasts. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and. respect and obey the kdzi of the regular Musalmans. They teach their boys to read and write Marathi. Besides as corn dealers they serve as constables, contractors, messengers, and servants. They are a rising class. The twenty separate communities of local origin are:

Bagbans

Ba'gba'ns, literally gardeners or fruiterers, all descended from local Kunbis are found in large numbers in towns and large villages. In speech and look they resemble ordinary Musalmans, and, except that they do not wear trousers, their daily dress is the same as the regular Musalman dress. The women wear the Maratha robe and a bodice, appear in public, and help the men in their calling. As a class Bagbans are dirty, but hardworking, honest, orderly, and thrifty, and are fruit and vegetable sellers. A few among them are well-to-do but many of them are in debt. They nominally belong to the Hananfi sect of Sunnis but practically are Hindus worshipping regular Hindu gods, keeping the Hindu fasts and feasts, and eschewing beef. They marry among themselves and form a separate community with a headman chosen from among their richest families. The head with the consent of the majority of the castemen punishes breaches of social rules with fines which generally take the form of caste feasts. They do not send their children to school or take to new pursuits, and are a falling class.

Bakar Kasabs

Bakar Kasa'bs, or Mutton-butchers, descended from converts of the Lad Kasab caste, are found in large numbers all over the district. They trace their conversion partly to Aurangzeb and partly to Tipu Sultan of Maisur. They are said to have come to Sholapur with the army of General Wellesley, but are more likely to have come with General Munro in 1818. They have two subdivisions Kamlas or blanket-wearers and Kaundas or quilt-wearers. Kamlas found in the Deccan and Karnatak work as butchers only while the Kaundas are found only in the Nizam's country and are called Chaknavalas or boiled mutton sellers. The Sholapur Kamlas speak Hindustani at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. The men shave the head and either shave the beard or wear it short. A few wear gold earrings, a little larger than women's earrings, and dress in a turban, a waistcoat, a waistcloth, or a pair of tight trousers. The women wear the Maratha robe and bodice, appear in public, and help in selling mutton. Both men and women are dirty and untidy, but hardworking and thrifty. They have fixed shops and never hawk flesh about the streets. As a class they are orderly, honest, and well-to-do. Except that they ask the kazi to register their marriages or employ him at their deaths, they never perform any Musalman rites or associate with other Musalmans. They keep all Hindu fasts and feasts, hold beef-butchers in contempt, and eschew beef. Their names are the same as Hindu names and they form a separate community under their headman or patil who settles social disputes with the consent of the majority of the caste. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits, live in comfort and lay by.

Bhadbhunjas

Bhadbhunja's, or Grain Parchers, are found in small numbers in all towns and large villages. They are dark, strong, and well built, and, except that they wear the beard, in look speech and dress they resemble Upper Indians or Pardeshis. The women wear a Maratha robe and bodice, appear in public, and help in parching grain. As a class they are dirty and untidy but orderly and hardworking. Though many of them are thrifty, as a class Bhadbhunjas live from hand to mouth. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but seldom say their prayers, and their customs are a mixture of Hindu and Musalman rites. They marry only among themselves and have a well organised union under their headman who is chosen from among the richest families. He has power to fine any one who breaks caste rules. They differ from ordinary Musalmans in eschewing beef, keeping Hindu feasts, and offering vows to Hindu gods. They respect and obey the kazi whom they employ to register their marriages and sometimes to settle their caste disputes. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits. Besides as grain parchers they earn their living as servants and labourers and are a poor class.

Bojgars

Bojgars, or Boj or Millet Beer Sellers, local converts of the Bhoi caste, are scattered in small numbers over the district. They speak Hindustani at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. They are dark spare tall and rough featured, shave the head, and wear the beard full. The men dress in a Maratha turban, a shirt, a coat, and a waistcloth, and the women in the Maratha robe and bodice. The women appear in public, but mind the house only. As a class Bojgars are clean and neat in their habits but are given to smoke hemp flower and drink liquor and sell millet beer at their fixed Bhops. Besides at liquor shops the men and women work as labourers. Some among the men are fishers and palanquin bearers. They are careless of the future, spend what they daily earn, and are poorly clad and generally in debt. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect and though careless in saying their prayers they obey and respect the kazi and employ him to register their marriages. They marry among themselves and form a distinct community under a headman chosen from among the oldest and richest families. They have a caste council. They are unlettered themselves and do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits.

Bhois

Bhois, or Fishers and Palanquin Bearers, descended from local converts of the Hindu tribe of the same name, are found over the whole district. They speak Hindustani among themselves and Marathi or Kanarese with others. The men are dark, middle-sized, and well made, shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress in a Maratha turban, a waistcoat, and a waistcloth. The women are fairer than the men, wear the Maratha robe and bodice, and appear in public but do not add to the family income. As a class Bhois are dirty and untidy. The men are palanquin bearers but except on marriage occasions among the Musalmans the demand for their services has ceased since the time of the opening of roads and railways. As a class they are badly off. Some among them have become millet beer sellers, fishers, constables, messengers, and servants. They are hardworking but given to drink. They marry among themselves or with Bojgars and form a separate community. They have strong Hindu leanings, eschew beef, and keep Hindu festivals. Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name, they seldom pray or keep Musalman customs. They obey and respect the kazi and employ him to register their marriages. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits.

Bhatyaras

Bhatya'ra's, or Cooks, probably descended from local converts, are found, in small numbers over the whole district. They speak Hindustani with themselves and Kanarese or Marathi abroad. In look and dress they do not differ from ordinary Musalmans. The women dress in the robe and bodice, appear in public, and help the men in their work. As a class Bhatyaras are dirty and untidy in their habits and are boarding-housekeepers. They have fixed boarding houses which are scarcely supplied with any furniture except mats and are often dirty. Their customers are chiefly travellers and poor houseless labourers and the men are often employed to cook Musalman dinner parties. They make 1s. to 4s. (Rs. ½-2) a day and their women manage the boarding house. Though hardworking and earning much they waste their money in drink and are poor. They marry among themselves and form a distinct body under a headman chosen from among their richer families. Though they call themselves Sunnis of the Hanafi school they seldom say their prayers. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits, and none of them have risen to any high position.

Dhobis

Dhobis, or Washermen, converts from the Hindu caste of the same name, are found in small numbers over the whole district. In look speech and dress they resemble ordinary Musalmans and their social and religious customs are the same as Musalman customs. Their women appear in public and help the men in washing clothes. As a class Dhobis are clean and neat, hardworking, sober, and thrifty. The men make 12s. to £1 16s. (Rs.6-18) a month but many are given to drinking date-palm juice and are seldom well-to-do. They have a headman and a caste council and marry among themselves only. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect but they never say their prayers and have strong Hindu leanings, eschewing beef and keeping Hindu feasts and making vows to Hindu gods. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits, and are a falling class.

Gavandis

Gavandis, or Kadias, local converts of the caste of the same name, are found in small numbers in towns and large villages. They speak Hindustani at home and Marathi abroad. They are strong dark and well made. The men shave the head but wear the beard and dress in a Maratha turban, a waistcoat, and a waistcloth. The women who are generally of middle height and fairer than the men wear a robe and bodice and appear in public but do not work except minding the house. Both men and women are dirty and untidy but hardworking. They are stone masons and bricklayers and are paid 6d. to 1s. (4-8 as.) a day. They marry among themselves, form a separate community and have a caste council of elders who punish wrong-doers with fines which generally take the form of caste feasts. They say they are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but have strong Hindu leanings, making vows to Hindu gods, eschewing beef, and keeping Hindu festivals. They do not send their children to school, and are a falling class.

Ghair Mahadis

Ghair Mahadis, or Anti-Mahadis, who believe that the last Imam or Saviour has come, are found in small numbers over the whole district. The founder of their sect was Muhammad Mahadi, son of Syedkhan of Jaunpur who was born in 1443 (847 H.). He began to preach at the age of forty as a'saint or wali and drew round him a number of followers both at Mecca and at Jaunpur. In 1497 he openly called himself the looked-for Mahadi and his public career was marked by a number of miracles. After his death in 1504 from fever his son with a few followers came to the Deccan, and in 1520, Burhan Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar became a staunch believer in the sect Mahadi. Even now their largest number pf Ghair Mahadis are found in Ahmadnagar. Their converts were chiefly low and ignorant Musalmans. Though free to profess their opinions the Ghair Mahadis still practise caution ortakiyab, and most of them are anxious to pass as orthodox Musalmans. They speak Hindustani, and, except that they hold that Muhammad Mahadi is the last Imam or expected Saviour and that they do not repent for their sins or pray for the souls of the dead, they do not differ from regular Musalmans in look dress or customs. They marry among themselves and live in circles or dairas governed by rules of their own. Both men and women are clean, neat, honest, hardworking, orderly, and thrifty. The women dress in a Maratha robe and bodice and do not work beyond minding the house. The men dress like regular Musalmans and are constables, messengers, and servants. They take to new pursuits and are fairly off. They teach their boys to read the Kuran and send them to school. They are a steady class.

Halalkhors

Halalkhors, or Sweepers, perhaps descended from local converts of the Bhangi caste, are found in considerable numbers in Sholapur. Except that they are nightsoil-men they do not differ from other Musalmans in look dress and social and religious customs. The women work as much as the men. As a class they are dirty and untidy in their habits, hardworking but given to drinking date-palm juice. They have a separate caste council and a headman called patil. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and have strong Hindu leanings. They employ the kazi at their marriages and deaths and attend mosque only on the Bakar Ids and the Ramzan days. They do not associate with other Musalmans who look down on them. They are considered impure, and are not allowed to read or even to touch the Kuran. They worship Hindu gods and keep Hindu feasts. They do not send their children to school and are a low and poor class.

Kanjars

Kanja'rs, or Poulterers, probably descended from local converts of the Vadar or Pardhi tribes, are found in small numbers over the whole district. Their home-tongue is Hindustani and all are tall dark and thin. The men wear the beard and dress in a waistcloth, a waistcoat, and a Maratha turban. The women wear the Maratha robe and bodice, appear in public, and help in rearing and selling poultry. As a class Kanjars are dirty and untidy in their habits, rear and sell poultry, and make hemp ropes and coir. Though hardworking and thrifty in managing the house both men and women are given to drink. The women are proverbially quarrelsome. Except that they say that they are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and ask the kazito register their marriages they are Hindus in religion, worshipping all Hindu gods and goddesses and keeping the regular Hindu fasts and feasts. They form a separate community under their headman or chaudhari who settles social disputes and punishes breaches of social rules with fines which generally take the form of caste feasts. They marry among themselves only and do not send their boys to school but live from hand to mouth.

Momins

Momins, or Weavers, probably local converts of the Koshti or Sali class, are found in large numbers over the whole district. They are said to have been converted in the fourteenth century by an Arabic preacher Pir Syed Husein Gaisudaraz or Khav Bunda Nawaz who died in 1408 (825 H.) at Gulbarga. The descendants of this saint or pir still hold the position of religious teachers or pirjadas to the Sholapur Momins who call themselves thepirjadas disciples or murids and pay them a yearly tribute. Except that they wear the beard and speak Hindustani at home, in look dress and speech they resemble the Hindu weavers, and their women appear in public and help in weaving. Both men and women as a role are dirty and untidy, but honest, orderly, and hardworking. They are weavers and use English yarn as it is cleaner and finer than local hand-made yarn. The well-to-do among them employ servants to work under them. They sell their goods to cloth merchants in Sholapur or go hawking them from place to place. Except during the rains their work is constant. Their goods are in great demand especially during the marriage seasons from January to June. They work both day and night with short intervals for food and rest. Owing to the reduced condition of the Sholapur people in consequence of the 1876-77 famine, Momins' goods are not in so much demand as they once were, and though hardworking they are given to date palm juice drinking and are badly off. The women work as much as the men and mind the house. They marry among themselves and form a separate body under their headman orchaudhari who is chosen from among their rich and well-to-do families, and punishes breaches of social rules with fines which generally take the form of caste feasts. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect and though seldom careful to say their prayers, they obey the kaziand perform all the leading Musalman ceremonies. They pay great respect to the Gulbarga saint by whom their forefathers were converted to Islam and to his descendants. They pay them yearly dues and bury a roll of written paper containing the pedigree of the saint with their dead under the belief that the angels of death Munkir and Nakir will cease to tease the spirit of the dead when they see the paper. A few among them teach their boys to read the Kuran and send their boys to school. Two Momins are employed as English clerks and one rich Momin is a Municipal Commissioner at Sholapur.

Pakhalis

Pakhalis or Water Carriers, probably descended from local converts from the Hindu caste of the same name, are found in small numbers in towns only. Except that they wear a heavy gold earring, the Pakhalis do not differ from ordinary Musalmans in dress, look, speech, and customs. The women appear in public, mind the house, and help the men in their work. As a rule Pakhalis are clean, neat, hardworking, and orderly. They are water-suppliers and carry water in leather bags on their bullocks' back. They are employed by Parsis, Musalmans, and Europeans, but their calling is poorly paid and many of the men are given to intoxicating drinks and drugs. They marry among themselves only, and have a separate caste council and headman who settles social disputes with the consent of the majority of the castemen, and punishes breaches of social rules with fines which generally take the form of caste feasts. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and have strong Hindu leanings, worshipping Hindu gods, keeping Hindu feasts and fasts, and eschewing beef. They do not send their boys to school.

Pendharis

Pendha'ris, found in small numbers in the Sholapur cantonment, are descended from converts from mixed Hindu classes, who, before the establishment of British supremacy in India were a dread and plague to the country. They have a mixture of local and Upper Indian blood, and speak a mixture of rough Hindustani Malvi and Marathi. As a class they are tall, dark, strong, and well made. The men either shave the head or cut the head hair close, wear the beard full, and dress in a dirty and untidy turban, a shirt, a waistcoat, and a pair of tight trousers or a waistcloth. The women who are rather fairer than the men, wear a dirty Maratha robe and bodice, appear in public, and add to the family income by selling fuel, grass, eggs, and fowls. Though hardworking they are neither sober nor honest. The men keep ponies and work as servants and labourers. They marry among themselves, and have a separate caste council and a headman or jamadar who settles their social disputes at meetings of castemen. They eschew beef and worship Yallamma. In religion they say they are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and their customs are the same as ordinary Musalman customs. Of late some among them have begun to attend the mosque and to leave worshipping Hindu gods. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits.

Panjnigars

Panjnigars, or Sizers, descended from local converts, are found in small numbers in towns only. They speak Hindustani among themselves and Marathi or Kanarese with Hindus. They are dark strong and middle-sized. The men wear the beard full and dress like other Musalmans. The women, who are fairer than the men and regular featured, dress in the Maratha robe and bodice, appear in public, mind the house, and help the men in their work. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits. They are hardworking, but given to drinking date-palm juice, and hence are poorly clad and seldom well-to-do. They form a separate body under their headman and marry among themselves only. They call themselves Sunnis of the Hanafi sect but seldom, say their prayers. They do not send their children to school.

Patvegars

Patvegars, or Tassel Twisters, descended from local converts of the caste of the same name, are found scattered over the district in small numbers. In look speech and dress they resemble other local Musalmans and are clean and neat in their habits. They are tassel twisters, make silk buttons, deck pearl and gold ornaments with silk, and sell false hair. They hawk their goods about the streets and make 6d. to 2s. (Rs. ½ -1) a day. They are hardworking, orderly, and thrifty and are fairly off. They form a distinct body under their headman called chaudhari and marry among themselves. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, obey and respect the kazi, and employ him at marriages and deaths, but they seldom say prayers and have strong Hindu leanings. They eschew beef, keep Hindu feasts, and offer vows to Hindu gods and goddesses. They do not send their boys to school but teach them to read the Kuran at home. Their calling is well paid and they are a saving class.

Rachbharas

Ra'chbharas, or Heddle Fillers, probably descended from local converts of the same caste, are found in towns and large villages. They form a distinct branch of Momins, and are like them in look, speech, dress, and customs. Besides heddle-filling they weave and are hardworking but given to drink and live from hand to mouth. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but seldom say their prayers and keep Hindu festivals. They do not send their children to school and are badly off.

Sikalgars

Sikalgars, otherwise called Sikligars or Armourers, descended from local converts of the Lohar caste, are found in small numbers all over the district. In look speech and dress they resemble ordinary Musalmans and as a class they are neat and clean in their habits. The women appear in public, mind the house, and help the men in their calling. They sharpen swords, daggers, knives, and other weapons, and are hardworking and thrifty but their labour is in little demand and they are badly off. They marry among themselves and form a distinct body under their headman who is generally chosen from their well-to-do families. Their social and religious customs resemble those of Patvegars and other Musalmans of local origin. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits and are a decaying class.

Saltangars

Saltangars, or Tanners, descended from local converts, are found in small numbers in Sholapur. They speak Hindustani at home and Kanarese or Marathi abroad, and in work, dress, and social and religious customs are like ordinary Musalmans. As a class they are dirty and untidy in their habits. They buy sheep and goat skins from butchers, tan them, and sell them to Mochis or shoemakers. Their trade has lately suffered much owing to the competition of Labbays. Though hardworking they are given to drink and are poor. They marry among themselves and form a distinct community under their headman or chaudhari.Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school they seldom say their prayers and have strong Hindu leanings, keeping the Hindu feasts and offering vows to Hindu gods. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits.

Tambolis

Ta'mbolis, or Betel Sellers, local converts of the Kunbi class, are found in considerable numbers in towns and large villages. They speak Hindustani among themselves and Marathi or Kanarese with others. The men are tall or of middle height, and dark or olive skinned. They shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress in a Maratha turban or headscarf, a waistcoat, and a waistcloth. The women are fairer than the men and wear the Maratha robe and bodice. They appear in public and help the men in selling betel. As a class Tambolis are hardworking, clean, neat, orderly, and thrifty, and many of them are fairly off. They marry only among themselves and have a separate and well organised class union under their headman called patil who holds caste meetings, settles social disputes, and fines the breakers of caste rules. They have no connection with other Musalmans and eschew beef. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect, but worship Brahmanic gods and goddesses and make offerings to Mariai, Mhasoba, and Satvai. They keep Hindu fasts and feasts but obey theirkazi and ask him to register their marriages. They do not send their boys to school. Besides betel sellers they are messengers and servants and are well-to-do.