Rajasthan’s geography 02: Physiography
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Rajasthan’s geography 02: Physiography
Physiography of Rajputana
I shall conclude with a rapid sketch of the physiognomy of these regions ; minute and local descriptions will appear more appropriately in the respective historical portions
Rajasthan presents a great variety of feature. Let me place the reader on the highest peak of the insulated Abu, ' the saint's pinnacle,' 3 as it is termed, and guide his eye in a survey over this wide expanse, from the ' blue waters ' of the Indus west to the ' withy-covered ' 4 Betwa on the east. From this, the most [9] elevated spot in Hindustan, overlooking by fifteen hundred feet the Aravalli mountains, his eye descends to the plains of Medpat 5
1 Mr. J. B. Fraser [whose book was published in 1825].
2 My last journey, in 1822-23, was from Udaipur, through these countries towards the Delta of the Indus, but more with a view to historical and antiquarian than geographical research. It proved the most fruitful of all my many journeys. [The results are recorded in Travels in Western India, published in 1839, after the author's death.] 3 Guru Sikhar.
4 Its classic name is Vetravati, Vetra being the common willow [or reed] in Sanskrit ; said by WiLford to be the same in Welsh.
5 Literally 'the central {madhya] flat.' [It means 'Land of the Med tribe.'] (the classic term for Mewar), whose chief streams, flowing from the base of the Aravalli, join the Berach and Banas, and are prevented from uniting with the Chambal only by the Patar 1 or plateau of Central India.
Ascending this plateau near the celebrated Chitor, let the eye deviate slightly from the direct eastern line, and pursue the only practicable path by Ratangarh, and Singoli, to Kotah, and he will observe its three successive steppes, the miniature representa tion of those of Russian Tartary. Let the observer here glance across the Chambal and traverse Haraoti to its eastern frontier, guarded by the fortress of Shahabad : thence abruptly descend the plateau to the level of the Sind, still proceeding eastward, until the table-mountain, the western limit of Bundelkhand, affords a resting-point.
To render this more distinct, I present a profile of the tract described from Abu to Kotra on the Betwa : 2 from Abu to the Chambal, the result of barometrical measurement, and from the latter to the Betwa from my general observations 3 of the irregu- larities of surface. The result is, that the Betwa at Kotra is one thousand feet above the sea-level, and one thousand lower than the city and valley of Udaipur, which again is on the same level with the base of Abu, two thousand feet above the sea. This line, the general direction of which is but a short distance from the tropic, is about six geographic degrees in length : yet is this small space highly diversified, both in its inhabitants and the produc- tion of the soil, whether hidden or revealed.
1 meaning ‘table (pat) mountain(ar);-Although ar may not be found In any Sanskrit dictionary with the signification ' mountain,' yet it appears To be a primitive root possessing such meaning-instance, Ar-buddha, 'hill of Buddha'; Aravalli, 'hill of strength.' Ar is Hebrew for 'moun- tain ' (qu. Ararat ?) "Opos in Greek ? The common word for a mountain in Sanskrit, gir, is equally so in Hebrew. [These derivations are out of date. The origin of the word patar is obscure. Sir G. Grierson, to whom the question was referred, suggests a connexion with Marathi pathdr, ' a tableland,' or Gujarati pathar (Skr. prastara, ' expanse, extent '). The word is probably not connected with Hindi pat, ' a board.']
2 The Betwa River runs under the tableland just alluded to, on the east.
3 I am familiar with these regions, and confidently predict that when a similar measurement shall be made from the Betwa to .Kotah, these results will little err, and the error will be in having made Kotah somewhat too elevated, and the bed of the Betwa a little too low. [Udaipur city is 1950 feet above sea-level.]
Let us now from our elevated station (still turned to the east) carry the eye both south and north of the line described, which nearly bisects Madhyadesa,1 ' the central land ' of Rajasthan ; best defined by the course of the Chambal and [10] its tributary streams, to its confluence with the Jumna : while the regions west of the transalpine Aravalli 2 may as justly be defined Western Rajasthan.
Looking to the south, the eye rests on the long-extended and strongly - defined line of the Vindhya mountains, the proper bounds of Hindustan and the Deccan. Though, from our elevated stand on ' the Saint's Pinnacle ' of Abu, we look down on the Vindhya as a range of diminished importance, it is that our position is the least favourable to viewing its grandeur, which would be most apparent from the south ; though throughout this skirt of descent, irregular elevations attain a height of many hundred feet above such points of its abrupt descent.
The Aravalli itself may be said to connect with the Vindhya, and the point of junction to be towards Champaner ; though it might be as correct to say the Aravalli thence rose upon and stretched from the Vindhya. Whilst it is much less elevated than more to the north, it presents bold features throughout,3 south by Lunawara, Dungarpur, and Idar, to Amba Bhawani and Udaipur.
Still looking from Abu over the tableland of Malwa, we observe her plains of black loam furrowed by the numerous streams from the highest points of the Vindhya, pursuing their northerly course ; some meandering through valleys or falling over precipices ; others bearing down all opposition, and actually forcing an exit through the central plateau to join the Chambal.
The Aravalli Range
Having thus glanced at the south, let us cast the eye north of this line, and pause on the alpine Aravalli.4
1 Central India, a term which I first applied as the title of the map pre- sented to the Marquess of Hastings, in 1815, 'of Central and Western India,' and since become famillar. [Usually applied to the Ganges-Jumna Duab.]
2 Let it be remembered that the Aravalli, though it loses its tabular form, sends its branches north, terminating at Delhi.
3 Those who have marched from Baroda towards Malwa and marked the irregularities of surface will admit this chain of connexion of the Vindhya and Aravalli.
4 'The refuge of strength ' [?], a title justly merited, from its affording protection to the most ancient sovereign race which holds dominion, whether Let us take a section of it, from the capital, Udaipur, the line of our station on Abu, passing through Oghna Panarwa, and Mirpur, to the western descent near Sirohi, a space of nearly sixty miles in a direct line, where " hills o'er hills and alps on alps arise," from the ascent at Udaipur, to the descent to marwar. All this space to the Sirohi frontier is inhabited by communities of the aboriginal races, living in a state of primeval and almost savage independence, owning no paramount power, paying no tribute, but with all the simplicity of republics ; their leaders, with the title of Rawat, being hereditary. Thus the Rawat of the Oghna commune can assemble five thousand bows, and several others [11 ] can on occasion muster considerable numbers. Their habitations are dispersed through the valleys in small rude hamlets, near their pastures or places of defence.1
Let me now transport the reader to the citadel pinnacle of Kumbhalmer,2 thence surveying the range running north to Ajmer, where, shortly after, it loses its tabular form, and breaking into lofty ridges, sends numerous branches through the Shaikhavati federation, and Alwar, till in low heights it terminates at Delhi.
From Kumbhalmer to Ajmer the whole space is termed Merwara, and is inhabited by the mountain race of Mer or Mair, the habits and history of which singular class will be hereafter related. The range averages from six to fifteen miles in breadth, in the east or west-the ancient stock of the Suryavans, the Heliadai of India, our ' children of the sun,' the princes of Mewar. [Aravalli probably means ' Corner Line.']
1 It was my intention to have penetrated through their singular abodes ; and I had negotiated, and obtained of these ' forest lords ' a promise of hospitable passport, of which I have never allowed myself to doubt, as the virtues of pledged faith and hospitality are ever to be found in stronger keeping in the inverse ratio of civillzation. Many years ago one of my parties was permitted to range through this tract. In one of the passes of their lengthened valleys ' The Lord of the Mountain ' was dead : the men were all abroad, and his widow alone in the hut. Madari told his story, and claimed her surety and passport ; which the Bhilni delivered from the quiver of her late lord ; and the arrow carried in his hand was as well recognised as the cumbrous roll with all its seals and appendages of a traveller in Europe.
2 Meru signifies ' a hill ' in Sanskrit, hence Komal, or properly Kumbhal- mer, is 'the hill' or 'mountain of Kumbha’, a prince whose exploits are narrated. Likewise Ajmer is the 'hill of Ajaya,' the 'Invincible' hill. Mer is with the long e, like Mere in French, in classical orthography. [Ajmer, ' hill of Aja, Chauhan.']
having upwards of one hundred and fifty villages and hamlets scattered over its valleys and rocks, abundantly watered, not deficient in pasture, and with cultivation enough for all internal wants, though it is raised with infinite labour on terraces, as the vine is cultivated in Switzerland and on the Rhine.
In vain does the eye search for any trace of wheel-carriage across this compound range from Idar to Ajmer ; and it conse- quently well merits its appellation ara, ' the barrier,' for the strongest arm of modern warfare, artillery, would have to turn the chain by the north to avoid the impracticable descent to the west.1
Views from the Aravalli Hills
Guiding the eye along the chain, several fortresses are observed on pinnacles guarding the passes on either side, while numerous rills descend, pouring over the declivities, seeking their devious exit between the projecting ribs of the mountain. The Berach, the Banas, the Kothari, the Khari, the Dahi all unite with the Banas to the east, while to the west the still more numerous streams which fertilize the rich province of Godwar, unite to ' the Salt River,' the Luni, and mark the true line of the desert. Of these the chief are the Sukri and the [12] Bandi ; while others which are not perennial, and depend on atmospheric causes for their supply, receive the general denomination of rela, indicative of rapid mountain torrents, carrying in their descent a vast volume of alluvial deposit, to enrich the siliceous soil below.
However grand the view of the chaotic mass of rock from this elevated site of Kumbhalmer, it is from the plains of Marwar that its majesty is most apparent ; where its ' splintered pinnacles ' are seen rising over each other in varied form, or frowning over the dark indented recesses of its forest-covered and rugged declivities.
On reflection, I am led to pronounce the Aravalli a connexion of the ' Apennines of India ' ; the Ghats on the Malabar coast of 1 At the point of my descent this was characteristically illustrated by my Rajput friend of Semar, whose domain had been invaded and cow-pens emptied, but a few days before, by the mountain bandit of Sirohi. With their booty they took the shortest and not most practicable road : but though their alpine kine are pretty well accustomed to leaping in such abodes, it would appear they had hesitated here. The difficulty was soon got over by one of the Minas, who with his dagger transfixed one and rolled him over the height, his carcase serving at once as a precedent and a stepping-stone for his horned kindred.
the peninsula : nor does the passage of the Nerbudda or the Tapti, through its diminished centre, militate against the hypo- thesis, which might be better substantiated by the comparison of their intrinsic character and structure.
Geology of the Aravallis
The general character of the Aravalli is its primitive formation : 1 granite, reposing in variety of angle (the general dip is to the east) on massive, compact, dark blue slate, the latter rarely appearing much above the surface or base of the superincumbent granite. The internal valleys abound in variegated quartz and a variety of schistous slate of every hue, which gives a most singular appearance to the roofs of the houses and temples when the sun shines upon them. Rocks of gneiss and of syenite appear in the intervals ; and in the diverging ridges west of Ajmer the summits are quite dazzling with the enormous masses of vitreous rose-coloured quartz.
The Aravalli and its subordinate hills are rich in both mineral and metallic products ; and, as stated in the annals of Mewar, to the latter alone can be attributed the resources which enabled this family so long to struggle against superior power, and to raise those magnificent structures which would do honour to the most potent kingdoms of the west.
The mines are royalties ; their produce a monopoly, increasing the personal revenue of their prince. An-Dan- Khan is a triple figurative expression, which comprehends the sum of sovereign rights in Rajasthan, being allegiance, commercial duties, mines. The tin-mines of Mewar were once very productive, and yielded, it is asserted, no inconsiderable portion of silver : but the caste of miners is extinct, and political reasons, during the Mogul domination, led to the [13] concealment of such sources of wealth. Copper of a very fine description is likewise abundant, and supplies the currency ; and the chief of Salumbar even coins by sufferance from the mines on his own estate. Surma, or the oxide of anti- 1 [" Oldest of all the physical features which intersect the continent is the range of mountains known as the Aravallis, which strikes across the Peninsula from north-east to south-west, overlooking the sandy wastes of Rajputana. The Aravallis are but the depressed and degraded relics of a far more prominent mountain system, which stood, in Palaeozoic times, on the edge of the Rajputana Sea. The disintegrated rocks which once formed part of the Aravallis are now spread out in wide red-stone plains to the east" {lGI.i. 1).]
mony, is found on the western frontier. The garnet, amethystine quartz, rock crystal, the chrysolite, and inferior kinds of the emerald family are all to be found within Mewar ; and though I have seen no specimens decidedly valuable, the Rana has often told me that, according to tradition, his native hills contained every species of mineral wealth.
The Patar Plateau
Let us now quit our alpine station on the Aravalli, and make a tour of the Patar, or plateau of Central India, not the least important feature of this interesting region. It possesses a most decided character, and is distinct from the Vindhya to the south and the Aravalli to the west, being of the secondary formation, or trap, of the most regular horizontal stratification.
The circumference of the plateau is best explained in the map, though its surface is most unequally detailed, and is continually alternating its character between the tabular form and clustering ridges.
Commencing the tour of Mandalgarh, let us proceed south, skirting Chitor (both on insulated rocks detached from the plateau), thence by Jawad, Dantoli, Rampura,1 Bhanpura, the Mukunddarra Pass,2 to Gagraim (where the Kali Sind forces an entrance through its table - barrier to Eklera)3 and Margwas (where the Parbati, taking advantage of the diminished eleva- tion, passes fromMalwa to Haraoti), and by Raghugarh, Shahabad, Ghazigarh, Gaswani, to Jadonwati, where the plateau terminates on the Chambal, east ; while from the same point of outset, Mandalgarh, soon losing much of its table form, it stretches away in bold ranges, occasionally tabular, as in the Bundi fortress, by Dablana, Indargarh,4 and Lakheri,4 to Ranthambhor and Karauli, terminating at Dholpur Bari
The elevation and inequalities of this plateau are best seen by crossing it from west to east, from the plains to the level of the Chambal, where, with the exception of the short flat between Kotah and Pali ferry, this noble stream is seen rushing through the rocky barrier.
At Ranthambhor the plateau breaks into lofty ranges, their
1 Near this the Chambal first breaks into the Patar.
2 Here is the celebrated pass through the mountains.
3 Here the Niwaz breaks the chain.
4 Both celebrated passes, where the ranges are very complicated.
white summits [14] sparkling in the sun ; cragged but not peaked, and preserving the characteristic formation, though disunited from the mass. Here there are no less than seven distinct ranges (Satpara), through all of which the Banas has to force a passage to unite with the Chambal. Beyond Ranthambhor, and the whole way from Karauli to the river, is an irregular tableland, on the edge of whose summit are the fortresses of Utgir, Mandrel, and that more celebrated of Thun. But east of the eastern side there is still another steppe of descent, which may be said to originate near the fountain of the Sind at Latoti, and passing by Chanderi, Kanyadana, Narwar, and Gwalior, terminates at Deogarh, in the plains of Gohad. The descent from this second steppe is into Bundelkhand and the valley of the Betwa.
Distinguished as is this elevated region of the surface of Central India, its summit is but little higher than the general elevation of the crest of the Vindhya, and upon a level with the valley of Udaipur and base of the Aravalli. The slope or descent, therefore, from both these ranges to the skirts of the plateau is great and abrupt, of which the most intelligible and simple proof appears in the course of these streams. Few portions of the globe attest more powerfully the force exerted by the action of waters to subdue every obstacle, than a view of the rock-bound channels of these streams in this adamantine barrier. Four streams-one of which, the Chambal, would rank with the Rhine and almost with the Rhone- have here foreed their way, laying bare the stratification from the water's level to the summit, from three to six hundred feet in perpendicular height, the rock appear- ing as if chiselled by the hand of man. Here the geologist may read the book of nature in distinct character ; few tracts (from Rampura to Kotah) will be found more interesting to him, to the antiquarian, or to the lover of nature in her most rugged attire.
The surface of this extensive plateau is greatly diversified. At Kotah the bare protruding rock in some places presents not a trace of vegetation ; but where it bevels off to the banks of the Par it is one of the richest and most productive soils in India, and better cultivated than any spot even of British India. In its indented sides are glens of the most romantic description (as the fountain of ' the snake King ' near Hinglaj), and deep dells, the source of small streams, where many treasures of art,1 1 I have rescued a few of these from oblivion to present to my countrymen. in temples and ancient dwellings, yet remain to reward the traveller [15].
This central elevation, as before described, is of the secondary formation, called trap. Its prevailing colour, where laid bare by the Chambal, is milk-white : it is compact and close-grained, and though perhaps the mineral offering the greatest resistance to the chisel, the sculptures at the celebrated Barolli evince its utility to the artist. White is also the prevailing colour to the westward. About Kotah it is often mixed white and porphyritic, and about .Shahabad of a mixed red and brown tint. When exposed to the action of the atmosphere in its eastern declivity the decomposed and rough surface would almost cause it to be mistaken for gritstone.
This formation is not favourable to mineral wealth. The only metals are lead and iron ; but their ores, especially the latter, are abundant. There are mines, said to be of value, of sulphuret of lead (galena) in the Gwalior province, from which I have had specimens, but these also are closed. The natives fear to extract their mineral wealth ; and though abounding in lead, tin, and copper, they are indebted almost entirely to Europe even for the materials of their culinary utensils.
Without attempting a delineation of inferior ranges, I will only further direct the reader's attention to an important deduc- tion from this superficial review of the physiognomy of Rajwara.
