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Old page wikitext, before the edit `(old_wikitext)`	{\| class="wikitable" \|- \|colspan="0"\|<div style="font-size:100%"> This is a collection of articles archived for the excellence of their content.<br/>You can help by converting these articles into an encyclopaedia-style entry,<br />deleting portions of the kind nor mally not used in encyclopaedia entries.<br/>Please also fill in missing details; put categories, headings and sub-headings;<br/>and combine this with other articles on exactly the same subject.<br/> Readers will be able to edit existing articles and post new articles directly <br/> on their online archival encyclopædia only after its formal launch. See [[examples]] and a tutorial.</div> \|} [[Category:India\|M]] [[Category: Flora \|M]] [[Category: Places\|M ]] [[Category: History\|M]] =Manipur: Forests= =In the Pre-British Period= ''' Forests of Manipur during Pre-British Period (-) ''' ==1== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period-/ TheSangaiExpress] Aug-Sept Our understanding of the past tradition, conventions, decisions , agreements , other historical facts are our guiding factors in taking the present decisions They also shape our thinkings to a great extent This is the reason for this attempt of mine to study the condition of forests of Manipur during the Pre-British Period During the period prior to British Rule, the population of Manipur was so less , forests so thick that any form of forestry was not thought of With no systematic modern education , very less contact with outside world except the hostile engagement with Burmese, not much exchange of knowledge took place The old literature which had some bearing on forestry such as Uyanlon (on art of felling trees), Heejing Heerao (on art of making boats), Urol (on description of trees), Leirol (on description of flowers) have not been documented in to common language which people can understand or scientifically interpreted so that it is universally understood These are parts of archaic literature , considered to be a part of the Puyas or scriptures They do not fall in to the period of which I am going to describe, so no reference is made to these literatures It is fortunate that we have the Royal Chronicles, the Chietharol Kumbaba , accounts of other writers of this period such as Captain RB Pemberton, Colonel William McCulloch, Dr Robert Brown, Mr TC Hudson, Mr Alexander McKenzie, Mr EW Dun, BC Allen, Sir James Johnstone etc The reports of Capt Pemberton, Col McCulloch , Dr Brown are important as they are relevant to the period of this article Mr Mckenzie’s report () is also quite helpful as it has summarized all these reports , corroborated with official correspondences he received in his office at Calcutta I consulted some of the works of famous historians of Manipur like Dr L Chandramani Singh , Prof Gangmumei Kamei Prof Gangmumei had a paragraph on forests in his book, History of Manipur (Vol ) Dr L Chandramani Singh’s account on the genesis of boundary of Manipur , its extent was also a useful reference I heartily acknowledge all the materials I have availed out of these great works I have also collected some materials from the works of Shri RK Somorjit Sana on the Chronicles of Manipur Monarchs from to It was a country of eight thousand square miles plus with a sparse population, could be remnant of a great civilization only But one fact that everybody shall agree is the wonderful social system that existed in those days It is most fascinating aspect of Manipuri society Perhaps, we may need to do more documentation on all those aspects of this beautiful land For this write up, I am not blending it with modern findings about fauna , flora, Geology, climate etc, of which we have fairly good data now I would prefer to describe them in the works of that period in their own words, limit my presentation to what the earlier writers have found in their accounts, because we need to understand the understanding of the people of that period of time about the forestry , their dependence on forests Let me also confess that not much of findings could be made, but that little I could find are of great interests, at least academically, I hope, those who are in the fraternity shall share same feelings ===The Period=== The Pre British Period can be studied in two parts, the periods from to but the period covered in this article is for the later The first period is from since the British established some relationship at the time of Warren Hastings by doing a treaty (By Governor Verelest of Bengal Presidency) with Maharaj Bhagyachandra (Jai Singh) till the seven years devastation in But not much was made out of the treaty as during the currency of the treaty, the seven years devastation took place Going back beyond this period () shall not yield much to the cause of this article Prior to seven years devastation, there had been several encounters with Myanmar (Burmese), but Marjit Singh managed to be on the throne with Burmese help by surrendering most of the rights Such right included forest right of Kubo Valley But when he was building the Palace, he felled teak trees in Kubo Valley , brought the timber, for construction of his palace, the Burmese were infuriated This could be or was one of the reason for invasion in addition to his act of insubordination The seven years devastation ended in with Gambhir Singh with the assistance of British drove away the Burmese , started his reign The main part of this study of this period, is from (the reign of Gambhir Singh) to in (Anglo Manipur war) During his time also, there were a number of treaties with British , the territory of the country was defined, in the North with British Territory of Assam, in the west with Cachar District, in the south with Lushai Territory , in the east with Burma (Myanmar) In the mainland India by this time, much development has taken place being post mutiny period The British has taken a number of landmark steps toward governance During this period, the CrPC , IPC were passed ( , ) The Imperial Forest Department of the British India was set up in appointed Mr D Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests , introduced scientific Forestry The first Indian Forest Act was passed in amended in to be instrument of scientific management This being the period of industrial development in Europe , colonial expansion, huge quantity of raw materials were required , all the scientific principles for sustained yield were introduced But these developments did not have much inspect in forestry scenario of the state ===The Golden Age=== The period of - can be regarded as golden age of Manipur History as during this period, the Maharaja drove Burmese out from Manipur beyond Ningthee River (Chindwin), established the kingdom once again , made Ningthee as the boundary of the country With the help of British, the country had its own army comprising of infantry with guns who are trained , drilled properly In addition, there were cavalry of men which could go up to men , artillery of another men This was quite a formidable force for the Burmese , other unorganized uprisings The Burmese no longer troubled the people of Manipur There were a lot of activities for consolidation of the territory Some beginnings were also made for Jarip (but stopped later) The relation with British was reasonably good for the entire period except on two occasions, one when the British Drawn Map leaving out a number of villages along borders with Assam (Naga Hills) were not accepted secondly when the request from British for a plot of land for construction of a Dak Bungalow at Kohima was not agreed by the King Of course, Anglo Manipur war in was a turning point not only in the history of Manipur but for forestry in Manipur too There were a lot of possibilities of having a different course of history , geography of Manipur had this war not taken place Contrary to this period, the previous sixty years were full of turmoil, feud amongst the princes , frequent invasion by Burmese There was one treaty with British in but the same was not given effect by both parties The attempts of Mr Verelst to extend military cooperation with Manipur Kings to contain Burmese could not materialize According to McKenzie, there is nothing worth mentioning during this period This period was marred with feuds among the princes for the throne frequent subjugation by the Burmese ==II== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--ii/ TheSangaiExpress] ===Incumbency=== The table shows the period of reign of different kings , the corresponding Political Agents Sl Name of Kings Period of reign Maharaja Gambhir Singh Maharaja Nar Singh - Maharaja Debendra Singh ( mnths) Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh Maharaja Surchandra Singh Maharaja Kulachandra Singh Sir James Johnstonn Major Trotter Mr Grimwood Sl Name of Political Agents Period of Service Captain Gordon Major Mc Culloch Dr Dillon Major W McCulloch Dr R Brown, FRCSE GH Damant ===Demography=== The massacre of men , flight of people that took place during the seven years devastation period, feud among the princes prior to this period has taken heavy toll on the population A huge number of people were also taken away by the Burmese during their invasions in mid eighteenth century , during seven years devastation Mr Francis Hamilton reported that he saw people as captives near Ava During the reign of Gambhir Singh in the male population has been reported to be eight thousand souls only In it has been reported to be , only However, in the report of Political agency of the year the population has been recorded to be about lakhs The formal census of is said to have an element of irrelevancy but it has been quoted at lakhs The details of has been destroyed during the war before it could be documented , archived For my this article, I am not very concerned of the population figure of census (population was reported as ) ===Forest land=== As one can understand, the developments in the mainland India did not reach Manipur; one because it was an independent country, second, it was too landlocked for people from other lands to come , interact It was well isolated, very sparsely populated The legal implication of the term seems to be not thought of All the hills except in , around the central plains were all abound in thick forests The hill lands were divided in to five lams, each of which were under the charge of an official assisted by eight lambus The function of these officials has nothing to do with forestry Forestry became more streamlined after British conquest only The extraction was carried out without proper demarcation for sale to the British India, at Cachar Market (Silchar Bazar) from the parts of Forests of Kalanaga Hills (exchanged with Eastern Surma valley portion of Manipur under a treaty), Forests in the Jiri Borak Drainange Forests These forests were mapped much later after British occupation The forests in the Kabaw Valley were not extracted commercially, by the state, whatever extraction that has been done must have been under arrangement through British Burmese Government, as there is no record of revenue accrued from that part The forests suffered a lot from Jhuming , burning recklessly The descriptions of such fires are available in the Annual Administration Reports of the Manipur Agency, by Sir James Johnstone ===Climate=== The climate of the central plain portion of the valley was stated to be good, but the temperature was stated to be higher than from the elevation, feet, would have expected This excess in temperature may probably be owing to the reflection of heat from the sides of the lofty mountains surrounding The months of November, December, January, February, hoar frosts are prevalent January is the coldest, May , June are the hottest months in the year In May, the hill streams begin to rise, they usually remain full until October Storms are very rare, those terrific peals of thunder, brilliant flashes of lightning for which mountain countries are celebrated seldom occur The remaining eight months are more or less rainy Dew falls heavily, before the sun has set, the grass is usually saturated The wind blows chiefly from the South-West, whilst it does so, the country retains its usual healthiness It was believed that an Easterly wind, continued for any time, brings with it sickness ===Composition of Forests=== In his report, Captain Pemberton recorded that there were thick forest, dense , impervious from summit to the base According to him, I know no spot in India, in which the product of forests are more varied , magnificent Mr BC Allen also described the forests as … has lain across range after range of mountains, covered with forests so dense that it is seldom that he can see as much as a quarter of a mile before him In fact, there are nine ranges of hills between Imphal , Cachar The eastern face of the hill, Laimatol (now a Reserved Forests) was covered with short grasses, Imom , Tumnou probably There is also a small chapter on forests , vegetation in the report of R Brown published in the Imperial Gazetteer in It has been observed that the composition of the forests have never been studied , plants identified Timber trees are plentiful, but those only near the Cachar Frontier have any commercial value, there Jarool (Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Nagesur (Mesua ferrea), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasa), Wang (Gmelina arborea), Toon (Cedrella toona), India Rubber (Ficus elastica) are found Besides these, in the mountains are found oaks (Quercus species, Q serrata, Q dealbata, Q semiserrata , Castanopsis hystrix), Indian fir (Polyalthia longifolia), Indian Ash (Lannea grandis) Alder (Alnus nepalensis), walnut (Juglans regia), teak (Tectona grandis), Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata) , khangra (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) of which the last affords a black varnish different from the one before-mentioned The presence of Teak (Tectona grandis) as common species on the hills overlooking Kubo valley has been reported There are also reports of occurrence of wild tea plants (Thea chinensis) in the hill ranges of Heirok , occurrence of Rhododendrons (Rhododendron arboreum) in the hills in the east Presence of willow (Salix tetrasperma) has been noticed in the plain area , northern parts of the state There is also mention about Uningthou Dug out boats from Koubru Forests, Cham Timber from Laimaton Forests There were many other species which were much used in house-building, are very durable ==III== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--iii/ TheSangaiExpress] '''Revenue ''' The money revenue was very small,because the Raja being supplied by his people with everything that a Manipuri could want, the being without money revenue was not a cause of much anxiety So currency money was sparingly used But then the transition had to happen, with more intercourse with particularly Myanmar , Cachar, there had to be medium of transactions, which earlier not cared for has become very important So the importance of money in currency form becomes very important The money revenue was very small The currency mentioned is all in rupee The major item coming was from annual compensation paid by British Government to Manipur for Kabo Valley It was Rs per annum The remainder consists of tribute in sale from the sale of Loees, rent of fisheries, transit duties, export , import duties The total money revenue may be estimated at from twelve to fifteen thousand Rupees Even with the great disadvantage of an expensive land carriage, the Valley of Manipur is very favorably situated for commercial purposes, but the system of Government is opposed to the development of commerce; , the insecurity of traders in the Burmese territory is so great There is no record of any transaction of timber or forest produce, though in the later part, there was sale of tea seed, ivory, rubber , agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Syn agallocha)to traders in Cachar During this period, the Dimapur Manipur Cart Road has not yet opened The DMC Road became operative a little later in late s after the British took over the country The trade with Assam flourished after that (at one point of time, carts were registered) Forest Personnels There is no mention of any employment in forestry except during King Bhagyachandra titled Urungpurel He controlled forests , in addition all the brine wells Dr Brown mentioned in his account that all the brine wells belong to the King Later, as described by TC Hodson, the Urungba Loishang was charged with the duty of providing wood, bamboo, creepers , such materials The Boldeb Seina are overseers of the supply of firewood , Meitansang provides fuel In fact, the King’s Court does not mention much about forests, but more mention has been made about the hills as in those days hills were synonymous with forests This is evident from the survey records of Langol Hills , Heingang Hills in ; this part I shall deal with when I take up forestry during British period The detail field level functionaries are not mentioned in pre British period, but during British period, these functionaries are encountered , more fully described Places, history = During British Rule (1891-1947)= ''' Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947)''' By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh ==1== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31882-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] Introduction: Sometime back, I brought to the readers an article on the forests of Manipur in the pre colonial period of 1826-1891 (Maharaja Gambhir Singh’s reign to Anglo Manipur War). This article is for the period after Anglo Manipur War till independence of the state in 1947. This period has more concrete documentations and records as available to a large extent. The direction of the administration could be seen from these documents. The systematic documentation of decisions taken is available in the form of Darbar Resolutions, Royal Parwanas, Administration Reports written by the Political Agents, Manipur Gazettes and records of state accounts. In addition, the report of D.C. Kaith, A.J. Milroy, book written by J.C. Higgins were also crucial in making this article. The Cheitharol Kumbaba the royal chronicle was of great help. Regarding availability of plant and tree species I have depended largely on the report of Kaith and the Gazetteer by B.C. Allen. Prior to 1891, the state had nine Political Agents and during the British rule, there were fifteen Political Agents, some of them doing second or third term. Among all, Lt. Colonel Maxwell. Colonel Shakespear, Mr. JC Higgins and Mr. W.A. Cosgrave were popular ones. List of Political Agents: Sl Name Length of service 1 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1892-1893 2 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1893-1895 3 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1895-1896 4 Captain H.W.G. Cole, ICS (Offg) 1896-1898 5 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1899-1899 6 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1899-1902 7 Major Albert E Woods, Indian Army (Offg) 1902-1904 8 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1904-1905 9 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1905-1908 10 A.W. Davis, Esq., ICS, (Offg) 1908-1909 11 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1909-1914 12 Lt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, ICS, IIA 1914-1917 13 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1917-1918 14 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS, BA 1918-1920 15 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1920-1922 16 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1922-1922 17 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1922-1924 18 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1924-1928 19 C.G. Crawford, Esq, ICS (Offg) 1928-1928 20 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1928-1933 21 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1933-1946 22 G.P. Stewart, Esq, ICS 1946-1947 The population of the princely state was very low (2.48 lakhs in 1901) and forest area was quite vast with plenty of forest produces were there for taking whenever required and hence, the need for systematic harvesting was not foreseen. Forest management came with the British in 1891 and prior to British Rule in the year 1891, there were no system of scientific management in the state. Records are available about the orders of the state Darbar giving allotment of forest land to private individuals in the hills in the early part of British Rule. There is also a mention of forest revenue being only Rs. 200/- in 1891 (Administration Report of Manipur, 1891). From the records, it also appeared that prior to 1891, there was some export of Forest Produce particularly timber from Manipur to India as can be seen from the records of correspondences made by the Political Agent and Superintendent of Manipur State with the Assam Government and the DFO Cachar on the matter of abolition of import duty levied by the British India from the produces imported from the foreign countries, Manipur government proposing abolition of the said duty. Beyond this, there is no mention of any management or administrative system followed. There was no value of the forest produces due to vastness of the forest and lack of market facilities and poor communication. There was no policy on forest and non forest land. The extraction of forest produce commercially started only after 1889, when under an agreement with the Assam Government exploited these forests through the Cachar DFO on 75:25 revenue sharing basis with the later. During the early part of British Rule also, no separate Forest officer was appointed and forestry affairs were looked after by the President, Manipur State Darbar (PMSD popularly known as Chhoto Saheb) till 1931. During this period, collection of royalty from forest produces was introduced through toll stations and constitution of a few reserved forests. In the year 1931, the Forest Department of Manipur was set up with a separate Forest Member (equivalent to Forest Minister of present day). The details are being studied in this article. It is interesting to note that first regular staff appointed specifically for Forest Department was one peon and a clerk under the Darbar Member. A. Incumbency: Important incumbents in the administration were HH the Maharaja, The Political Agents, the Presidents of State Darbars, the Darbar Members and the Forest Officers. ==2== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31911-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] List of Vice Presidents and Presidents: Sl. Name Post Length of service 1 HH, the Maharaja of Manipur President 1907-1916 2 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS Vice-President 1907-1910 3 C.H. Bell, Esq do 1910-till June 4 J.C. Higgins Esq do 1910-1916 5 J.C. Higgins Esq, President 1916-1917 6 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1917-1918 7 V. Woods, Esq, CIE President 1918-till July 8 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1918-1919 9 A. Gimson Esq, ICS President 1919-1921 10 W. Shaw Esq, CIE President 1921-till June 11 C.S. Mullan Esq, MA ICS President 1921-1922 12 G.C. Crawford Esq, ICS President 1926-till Mar 13 H. Weightman Esq, ICS President 1925-1926 14 A. G. Mc Call Esq, ICS President 1927-1930 15 Capt. C.W.L. Harvey, MC, IA President 1930-1933 16 G.P. Stewart Esq, ICS, BA, LLB President 1933-1936 17 CBC Paine Esq, ICS President 1936-1937 18 ARH Mac Donald Esq, ICS President 1937-1939 19 T.A. Sharpe Esq, MBE, ICS President 1939-1943 20 E.F. Lydall Esq, MA, ICS President 1943-1945 21 F.F. Pearson Esq, MBE, IPS President 1945-1947 The other political and administrative personalities are not being discussed here. There were two Kings only since Maharaja Churachand Singh became major and became king in 1907 till British left in 1947, Maharaja Churachand Singh and Bodhchandra Singh, and hence they are also not discussed separately. For other posts, the names of the incumbent persons are given in the following paras: 1. The Political Agents: The Political Agent played an important role in the administration of the state before and after 1891. They were the direct agent of the colonial government and on all important matters his decision or decision taken by the Viceroy or the Governor General through him was final. Particularly during the minority of the maharaja (till 1907), the Political Agent was running the entire administration with the help of a few members of the council, but there was no formal Darbar. The powers of the Political Agents were different from than that of the pre British Period. During pre British period, the Political Agents were more or less doing the function of observers or diplomatic functions like ambassadors. During British period, they became all powerful persons in the state administration. All decisions of the Darbar were conveyed to him and serious penalties and punishments were all confirmed by him. The trials of cases involving the Europeans were also done by him and the Darbar did not have that power. Mr. G.P. Stewart was the last Political Agent and he oversaw the transition from colonial rule to the independence. After the British occupation was over, the title of the Political Agent was changed to Dominion Agent (DA) and that continued for sometime but by then, the role of the DA could not be seen much in the Government transactions. The last of the official correspondence with the DA was seen in October, 1947(The Manipur State Gazette, 1947). 2. The PMSDs (Presidents, Manipur State Darbar): In the beginning, H.H. the Raja of Manipur was the President of the Darbar till 1916 and from 1916, an Europian Officer was made the President of the State Darbar. In 1919 after the Kuki Rebellion, a new Rules of business was made for the Darbar. There were 18 Presidents of the Darbar including H.H. the Raja of Manipur. Other popular PMSD s were Mr. Cosgrave, Mr. JC Higgins, Mr. G.P. Stewart and Capt. CWL Harvey. The Darbar’s main role was to assist the King in administration. However, in the proceedings of the Darbar, the PMSD had a great say and influence; a few decisions taken at the behest of the PMSD could even go against the general feeling of the members. Mr. F.F. Pearson was the last PMSD and in later part of the colonial rule, he was designated as the Chief Minister of Manipur State. During this period many important decisions were taken, which in fact was not called for a transitory Government and they had far reaching impact to the state’s governance. He handed over the charge of Chief Minister to Shri MK PB Singh on independence. 3. The Darbar Members: The Darbar used to have six members and a President. Prominent Members were Rajkumar Dumbra Singh, Sougaijam Bhubon Singh, Rajkumar Bhaskar Singh, Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh, and Capt. M.K. Priyabarta Singh. ==3== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31972-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] List of Reserved Forests: 1. Chingkheiching Reserved Forests 16.06.1937 2. Langol & Langol Extn Reserved Forests 02.11.1938 3. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 4. Khema Reserved Forests 27.02.1946 5. Laiching Reserved Forests 07.05.1940 6. Sambei Purum Reserved Forests 07.10.1936 7. Langjingmanbi Reserved Forests 04.03.1935 8. Khamellok-Gwaltabi Reserved Forests 16.09.1946 9. Vangai, Tolbung, Kaimai Reserved Forests 29.05.1935 10. Laimaton Reserved Forests 06.03.1941 11. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 12. Jiri Makru Reserved Forests 06.01.1939 13. Cheklaphai Reserved Forests 28.02.1945 14. Yangenching Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 15. Kangbung Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 16. Longya Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 17. Kangchup Reserved Forests 27.04.1940 18. Jirimukh Reserved Forests 07.02.1940 19. Kangchup Reserved Forests 15.05.1940 20. Warok & Konung Reserves Dates not known Regarding the Darbar Member in charge of Forests, there was no separate Member in charge of Forests and the subject was looked after the President till 1931, many a times the issues relating to forests were raised by the Judicial Member in the Darbar. Shri J.C. Higgins, as Vice President first and later as the President of the State Darbar took a keen interest in the Forests and wild life of Manipur. He first obtained the service of Mr. Rowbotham in 1910 and later of Shri Milroy in 1913 to recommend methods of managing the forests of Manipur. Shri Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh was the first Forest Member and he was the Forest Member since establishment of the Department in 1931 till his promotion as a Judge in 1944 of the Chief Court. He was succeeded by Shri A. Ibotomcha Singh as Forest Member. In 1946-47, Shri W. Chaoba Singh was the Forest Member in the Manipur Darbar. 4. The Forest Officers: Inspite of the strong recommendations by Shri AJW Milroy and Shri JC. Higgins, the then Vice President, State Darbar, no Forest officer could be appointed for a long time inspite of the fact that Forests, next to land revenue, was the maximum revenue earner for the exchequer. There were fund provision for the State Forest officer but these were diverted off and on for other purposes. Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. D.C. Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, Shri C Padmanabh, Shri V Reddi were the forest officers prior to Shri RK Bijoychandra Singh, the local officer who became the State Forest officer (Later on, the Chief Forest Officer). Mr. Rowbotham and Kaith were appointed on temporary basis for assessing the forests and preparing a plan for working. Shri Hari Singh was in Manipur for a little over a year and got appointment as DCF in Bombay (Later, He became the Inspector General of Forests in the Central Government.) Shri V. Reddi was on tour to Jiribam when there were heavy Japanese bombings in Imphal and he could not come back, then he left for home from there. Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh, who was trained ranger (DDR 1937-39) was given charge, later appointed as State Forest officer. He was the first trained local officer. Note: Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh later became the Chief Forest Officer (CFO) of Manipur after the British period. He was the Head of Department for more than twentyfive years. B. Forest Protection : I. Forest Reservations done during British: The state used to keep a good chunk of land under reserved forests. The State Darbar was the highest administrative body and as state had control over the land, the reserved forests were created as per Darbar Resolutions. ==4== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32010-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] The forests reserved in these days were Tolbung Reserved Forests, Kaimai Reserved Forests, Leijangphai Protected Forests, Jiri-makru Protected Forests, North Barak-Laikot Protected Forests, Kailam Protected Forests and Langol RF, Heinagang RF, Khema Chingjin to Nongrenching RF. Shri A. MacDonald was the PMSD in the year 1939 and he personally took a keen interest in the protection of forest and regulating the management. Majority of the Reserved Forests of the state were constituted during his tenure as the PMSD. The Kangbung, Longya, Yangenching, Sugnu are the Reserved constituted during his period. In fact about 60% of the Reserved Forests of the state were reserved during British Rule. Note: The Darbar used to give permits for taking out produces from Warok Reserve in Bishnupur District but the author could not trace out the date of constitution/declaring the reserve. Same is for the Konung Reserve, but for Konung Reserve, major portion has been dereserved in much later after independence for const. Prior to setting up of a separate Forest Department in 1931, the fund earmarked for forest management were mostly unutilized. In late 1890s and early 1900, only expenditure for forest protection and management was mostly for two reserves near Imphal (Langol and Heinagnag). II. The reserved forests were known as State Reserve or Forest Reserve during British Rule. The Indian Forest Act was not fully implemented during the British period inspite of passing in the State Darbar. These State Reserves or Forest Reserves are equivalent to Reserved Forests under Indian Forest Act in function and purpose and they are saved by the proviso under Sec. 4 of Part C State Laws Act, 1950. III. Declaring Tera (Simul) as State Tree: The Tera tree (Bombax ceiba) was declared as state tree as its fruit was quite important for the state. D. Forest Revenue : 1. Revenue Collection: Prior to 1891, revenue from forests was in the form of selling of tea seeds, India Rubber, Ivory, Agarwood etc. But since the British occupied the state, hectic negotiations went on for years for export of timber to British India, but due to heavy imposition of duty, the same could not be done. Some minor items like tea seeds, ivory, agar wood etc. were exported and timber to some extent. But the actual export of timber started only after 1898-99, when under an agreement with the Assam Forest Department, the DFO Cachar was allowed to work the forests on 25:75 revenue sharing basis. This constituted major part of forest revenue. This arrangement continued for quite a long time, and with this came the idea of forest acts and rules as the Assam Forest Regulation is the oldest and well framed forest law. The other sources of revenue were sale of Monopoly right to hill villagers, auction of toll stations, grass mahals, Chalmugra Mahal etc. The revenue from forest contributed on an average about 20% to the state exchequer. The internal revenue from forests contributed very little to the state revenue. The two small reserved forests near Imphal (Langol and Heingang) were maintained at an average expenditure of Rs. 500-600 for protection annually and the same was opened for collection of thatch grass, reed and dead wood for two-three months every year, but there is no record of any revenue in 1890s and early 1900s. Further, during 1897-98, the Administration Report recorded that the PWD uses 18000 cft of timber and 66000 cft of firewood but no royalty was paid. It was also noted that the state was the proprietor of forests. According to A. Porteus, the then Political Agent “Upwards of 18,000 cubic feet of pine wood, valued at Rs. 11,000, and 66000 cubic feet of firewood, for neither of which did the state as proprietor, received a single pice, were used during the year by the Public Works Department alone”. 1. Timber Species under trade: In the Gazetteer of Manipur published in 1905, Mr. B.C. Allen enumerated a few species of timber which were traded with British India. They are as follows: Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, tula, Bora, Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), and Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima). 3. Fixation of Royalty: Due to exporting major portion of timber from the state to Assam, where forest laws were in operation from very early days, the reasonable limit of royalty was known to the state authority since the early days. However, the sale was mostly through auction of fuel wood coupes, toll stations etc. Royalty was fixed from time to time by the Darbar as done in the Darbar Resolution No 10A of 1932 and others. The Darbar revised the rates of royalty vide Darbar Resolution No. 1 of 20.12.1933 for certain timbers and for that of bamboo. The rates of royalty were fixed once again under Darbar Resolution No. 8 of dated 6.9.1944. 2. Forest Revenue & Expenditure I. Sale of Mahals right from 1909. The firewood mahals were in operation in Langol and Heingang Hills. II. Export of Forest produces from Manipur to British India a. Rubber: Creation & Sale of Rubber b. Timber: Negotiation for exemption of cess of 4% from Jiri Borak Forests c. Forest Working through Cachar DFO on Revenue Sharing basis 75:25 ==5== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32084-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] III. Revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests IV.Toll stations: setting up & putting into auction The Hill Office was created in the early 1930 and with this creation, certain forest areas were put to auction for collection of revenue, by creating mahals in the Assam Style, but there were certain difficulties in operating these mahals. The revenue collection was then through the toll stations opened near the foothills or just outside the town area of Imphal. Imphal toll stations were Sekmai, Sawombung, Kakching etc. These toll stations were mainly for collection of revenue from the forest produces brought to Imphal from the forests of the state other than the Jiri Barak Drainage Forests. The working of Burma Border Forests was under consideration for quite some time since the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation applied in 1912-13. The actual income from this aspect came only in 1915-16 and initially the revenue realized from this source was higher than that of the revenue received from the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests. In the year 1915-16, the revenue from Jiri Borak Forests was Rs. 11, 750/- against the revenue of Rs. 16, 816/-, realized from the Burma Border Teak Forests. However, as observed by Shri D. C. Kaith, there was a declining trend as may be seen from Assam Forest Administration Reports: It may clear from the figures of the following five years: 1899-1900 Rs. 14,998/- 1900-1901 Rs. 32971/- 1904-1905 Rs. 44,606/- 1927-28 Rs. 57,878/- 1928-29 Rs. 40,807/- 1929-30 Rs. 22,549/- 1930-31 Rs. 20595/- 1931-32 Rs. 8646/- But just after intervention of the state due to Shri Kaith’s report, there were a slow improvement in the revenue as may be seen from the records extracted from the Manipur Administration Reports. 1935-36 Rs 24,565/- 1936-37 Rs. 30,872/- Initially, the export from Jiri Borak Drainage Forests constituted major portion of revenue of Manipur. Later, the revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests also became quite a major part of forest revenue. Earlier, during pre British Period, there was not much source of revenue such as land revenue and hill house tax, the Kabo valley remittance and forest revenue mostly wild elephant sales, tea seeds, agar, ivory etc. constituted major revenue. For the state, the land revenue and hill house tax became more organized with the constitution of sub divisions based at Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Ukhrul etc. during British rule and this item overtook forest revenue as main contributor to the exchequer. E. Legal Powers: The Darbar had the law making powers: The Darbar Resolutions has the power of law. As such the Darbar yielded tremendous powers. The King on attaining major in the year 1907 was installed as the King and he became the president of the Darbar. But, majority of the powers remained with the Vice president who was a European. In 1916, an Englishmen was made the president, and Maharaja remained head, but just short of being a titular head. The Darbar Resolutions, the serious ones like imprisonment over five years requires HH the Raja’s confirmation in general, but some of the resolutions were put in to practice even without the confirmation of the Raja. Again, most of the serious issues were referred to the Political Agent, who if he felt necessary, was referred to the Governor General. Various other resolutions concerning Forests on regulation of Jhuming, extraction, hunting and game rules, fixing of royalty were passed by the Darbar. These resolutions were in fact, the backbone of forest management in the state and they had force of law. 3. Power of courts vested with the Darbar Member and Forest Officers The Darbar Member was vested with the powers of court to dispose of forest cases by acting as a court. The judgments were made appellable to the Appellate Court and to the Darbar. The passing of Indian Forest Act, 1927 for adoption in the year 1941 and 1945 did not change this arrangement . The Indian Forest Act was not much up to the likings of the Maharaja and did not get his accent. ==6== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32120-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] In fact, the the Darbar was so adapted to the earlier system of disposal of the cases and as such, the newly adopted Act was seldom quoted in the later proceedings of the Darbar or the other courts till 1950, only after the Act was formally adopted under Section 4 of Part C Laws Act, 1950. F. Scientific Management: In fact, the first management plan of forests started in Travancore state in 1837 (by Munro) in simple prescription of quantum of felling in Teak forests. Dr. Brandis before he came to India, tried scientific management of forests in Pegu (Burma) in 1856. Later he became IGF in India and introduced scientific management in Indian Forests 1864, but due to its unique geographic location and topographic features, the scientific system of management prevalent in India in the early and mid nineteenth century with Sir Dr. D. Brandis did not reach Manipur. So, the management of history can be studied in two parts, the Pre-Kaith and Post Kaith period. (i) Pre Kaith Period (1891-1932) Due to lack of trained staff and due to the conditions of communication and socio economy, forest management was not given scientific touch. The first forest officer involved in the management of forest of the state was D.C. Kith, an officer from Himachal Pradesh taken on deputation in the year 1932. Shri Kaith was appointed by the president, Manipur State Darbar, Shri CWL Harvey (Capt. Harvey) and His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur. His appointment was approved vide Darbar Resolution No 3 of 6.6.1932. There were some British Forest Officers prior to Mr. Kaith. They were Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. AJW. Milroy etc., but Kaith’s Report was the most elaborate one. 1. Milroy’s Report: Earlier, prior to British rule, there were posts of Urungpurel in the court of the Kings but after British occupation, there were no mention of the post and there was no specific staff or system of forest management though the income from forests was major source of revenue. In 1910-11, Mr. Rowbotham reported on the forests of Manipur. Mr. AJW Milroy, a forest officer from Assam (who later became the Conservator of Forests) was assigned to work out a management plan. Initially, the plan of hiring him was submitted in 1913. But the Darbar considered that the plan was to expensive to implement and asked the Officiating Conservator of forests of Assam only for a plan for dividing forests in Borak Drainage Forests in to blocks for systematic extraction (DR No. 7 dated 4.6.13). Ultimately Shri Milroy was hired and submitted a report in 1914. His plan mostly contained the silvicultural aspects, regeneration and harvesting but the detail survey and inventorisation part was not given much importance. The Darbar agreed that the report of Milroy submitted in February, 1914 would need and European Officer in place of An Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests. The Darbar also agreed for payment to such an officer for this purpose. As the luck would have it, war broke out and the attention of the Political Agent and other British Officers was diverted to war. Another reason was that sivicultural activities would have cost dearly beyond the estimation by the state. But, there was a provision kept in the budget under the Head-Forestry for a long time which could not be spent, probably a suitable officer could not be appointed. The appointment of any dedicated staff did not take place for a long time even after the reports of Rowbotham and Milroy and till 1931 when the first Darbar Member known as Forest Member was appointed. 2. Appointment of Forest Member: The year 1931 seem to be a special year for the Department. The post of Forest Member came in to existence in the year 1931. The Darbar Member assumed charge on 1st November, 1931 and thus the Department came in to existence. This date has been regarded as birthday of the Department. The moves that the new Darbar Member made can be seen from the Darbar Resolutions passed on the 7th November and 14th November, 1931. From the Darbar Resolution No. 7 dated 14.11.1931, it is quite evident that the activities were stepped up as first step, the forest management of Langol and Heingang Reserves were made more systematic by dividing in to blocks (mahals) for systematic harvesting. ==7== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32136-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] 3. Kaith’s Report: He was given first assignment to write about Manipur Forests specially of Jiri barak Drainage Forests which at present covers western Forest Division, Jiribam Forest Division and a portion of Tengnoupal Forest Division. The extreme emphasis given in these parts of the forests was due to its proximity to the mainland India and availability of water transport facility for the produces. Shri Kaith’s report was very comprehensive one and was taken as the foundation of forestry in Manipur. He recommended working of forests of Manipur based on four distinct units, the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, the Burma Border Forests, Forests overlooking the Imphal Valley and North and East Forests. Due to the heavy demand of forests produces from British India, the management suggested for Jiri Borak Drainage Forests was much more elaborate. Simultaneous with his survey works, the Darbar Resolution No 10A which is virtually the Forest Policy of the state was passed in 1032 and there were marked change in the concept of exploitation of forests. The four types of forests are envisaged in this policy are: State Reserve – to be put under strict state protection Valley Village Reserve- for the villages situated in the valley but depending on the forests in the nearby hills for meeting their requirements, Hill Village Reserve- Known as ¼ miles reserve to be maintained around each recognized village, Open Reserve- open for commercial and domestic requirement with permit. Besides, the Darbar also fixed rates of royalty realizable from the open reserves. Later on in subsequent years, the village chiefs were given the preference of buying back the mpnopoly right on payment of a very low payment of M. Fee as fixed by the Darbar. The importance of the Darbar Resolution No. 10A are as follows: 1. It was the first policy guideline for management of Forests in the state. 2. The state reserves was given top priority 3. Extraction was regulated and allowed on permit system 4. Realisation of royalty was introduced For regulating shifting cultivation and reducing its adverse impact on the forests of the state, the Darbar passed another resolution which says that for shifting cultivation, permission of the Manipur State Darbar or the Maharaja is required, but this could not be effectively implemented. After Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, another product of Edinburgh became the State Forest Officer. He stayed for one year in Manipur and he was followed by Shri C. Padmanabh. Shri Padmanabh worked till 1940. Next was Shri K.V. Reddy who stayed upto 1942. During this period, Shri L.M. Singh was the Darbar Member in Charge of Forests and it was during this period that the Indian Forest Act, 1927 was moved for adoption in Manipur with a few modifications. The Indian Forest Act was first moved for adoption in the year 1941 and later passed by the Darbar for adoption with amendments and modifications in 1945, but the Maharaja did not give his consent. After Shri Reddy, local officers came, Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh was the first local forest officer. (ii). Post Kaith Period (1933 – 1947): After Kaith’s Report was submitted in September, 1933, there were marked changes in the forest management of the state. Important landmark changes are: 1. Powers of Court given to Darbar Member 2. Block System for Selection System of Forestry 3. Introduction of exotics like Wattle, Gravillea, Taxodium, Mahogany etc. Other important recommendations of Mr. D.C. Kaith are as follows: 1. The State Forest Officer and Darbar Member were given the power to try Forest Offences. 2. Court of Appeal could hear appeals on forest offences 3. Recommended to follow Assam Style of working and Assam Forest Manual and Darbar take advice from Conservator of Assam on regular basis. 4. Resin tapping was identified as a source of revenue. 5. Called for more investment in forestry sector. 6. Timber blocks system was introduced for extraction of timber. 7. State should manage its own forests (the management of Jiri-Borak Drainage Forest was taken over in 1936) Classification of Products: The terms major and minor produces were introduced after the report of Kaith(1933). He termed timber as Major produce. The minor produces he defined are Grass, Firewood, orchids, pine wood splinters (pine torches), canes, tea seed, bee wax, deer horn etc. He proposed that the barks of Oaks, particularly Sahi Kuhi be used for tanning purposes. Actually, the major and minor forest produces have not been described even in the Indian Forest Act, 1927. G. Creation of Mahals: Certain Mahals were in operation during the period. The important mahals were the the Tea Seed Mahals, Agar Mahals, Chalmugra Mahals, Grass Mahals etc. The Grass Mahals continued to provide a steady Revenue as the requirement for housing was quite high, as thatch roofing was common means of roofing. Export selling of tea seeds and Agar Mahals continued since the pre British period on piecemeal basis, but only in later period of British period these were constituted in to mahals. Two Chalmugra mahals were created vide Darbar Resolution No. 12 of 8. 4.1936. The Seeds of Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) yield Chalmugra oil. The two mahals were one for the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests and other one for the rest of the state. These mahals were allowed to be leased out commencing from 1st April, 1936. The royalty was fixed at Rs. 1 per maund vide Darbar Resolution No. 8 dated 5.5.1936 on the recommendation of the Deputy Conservation of Forests. Regarding working of firewood, the coupe system was followed quite early in the Langol and Heingang Reserves. As for timber working, Shri Kaith recommended the division of forests into certain blocks for convenience in management. Accordingly, the Jiri-Barak Drainage Forests and adjoining Forests were divided into 19 (nineteen) timber blocks for proper management and extraction of the Forests. These blocks are all based on the watershed concept, and considering the period in which these were done, could be regarded as an advance system. Secondly, as in those days, water transport was the only one available, the watersheds draining into a major rivers such as Irang, Barak, Makru, Jiri, Ijei, Leimatak, Tipai etc. were taken as basis for dividing in to different timber blocks. Even today also, water is the only means of transport from the timber blocks M-IV, M-V, MXIV, M-XV etc. These units are by and large taken as management units of forests of these parts. ==8== By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32167-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] H. Forest Composition: Watt (1888) divided the forests in to three vegetation zones, but the same has not been reflected in the writings of the authors of those times like B. C. Allen, Mc Kenzie and others. B.C. Allen (1905) gave a list of timbers that were much in demand in Surma Valley in early 1890s. These species have been covered in the listings done by Shri Kaith later. The Forest Type Classification of H.G. Champion (1935) was not much known to the forest administration of the princely state. According to Kaith, the forests was divided in to four types, the evergreen forests of Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, Imphal Valley Forests of Oak and Pine, North East Pine Forests and Burma Border Teak Forests. (i) Composition in Jiri Borak Forests (Local/common names as in Jiri & Cachar): Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Tula (Tetrameles nudiflora), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, Bora (Trewia nudiflora), Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Mishi, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima), Koroi (A. procera), Siris (A. stipulata), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasha), Chatni(Alstonia scholaris), Patri Chawan (Alseodaphne petiolaris) and Bamboos like Dolu, Pecha, Muli, Kala Sundi etc. Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) was common fruit tree (Minor Forest Produce). (ii) Composition of Burma Border Forests: Khangra, Yangou, Toon, Larong ( Dillenia pentagyna), Laihidak, Jam, Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata), Engelhardtia, Teak, (iii) Composition of forests around Imphal valley: Siris, Pareng, Tera, Chingthrau, Panggong (Butea monosperma), Tairel, Nanap, Lamuk (Cordia myxa), Heigri, Jam, Chorphon, Heitroi (Flacourtia catafracta), Wang, Heibung, Ushoi, Shahi, Thangji, orchids etc. I. Wildlife: During pre-British period, the wild life protection was given only some mentions, even the king had to pay some tribes for eliminate and kill dangerous animals like tigers. The Sangai, of course received royal protection. The country had its first game rules passed in 1916 under the stewardship of J.C. Higgins. Hunting of game animals was in existence since pre British period and this new rule sought to regulate hunting. It was later amended in 1931. J.C. Higgins wrote the book Game Birds and Animals of Manipur and he listed important birds and animals in his book in 1918. Regarding the birds, he has given an elaborate account dividing the book in to VI parts, but gave a brief account of animals confined in the last chapter. The birds were Geese, Ducks, Teals, Shoveller, Pochards, Snipes, Bustards, Plovers, Cranes, Terns, Coots, Jungle fowls, Burmese Peafowls, Partridges, Quails etc. Among the mammals, important ones are Elephant, rhinoceros, Bison, Mithun, Buffalo, Sabeng, Sambhar, Kharsa, Jungle Cat, Wild Dog, Jackal, Himalayan Black Bear, Malayan Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard etc. as cited by him. I. Regeneration of Forests: Till late stage of British rule, forest regeneration was not given any serious thought and no part of the money revenue was ploughed back to Forests though Kaith recommended 20% to be ploughed back. As a result the forests deteriorated quite seriously. Shri D.C. Kaith strongly cautioned the administration on this. Only after his report, there were remarkable changes in Forestry sector. Regeneration activities were taken up in the Langol RF, Heingang, RF, Kangchup RF, Jirimukh RF and many other RFs. Important species planted were Teak, Mahogany, Jarol, Pine etc. Side by side, introduction of exotics such as Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Grevillea, Jacaranda. Wattle etc. were also taken up. Remnants of those attempts of wattle were seen till a few years back in Tadubi and Ukhrul areas. Introduction of Wattle could be related to production of tannins which the PMSD and Political Agents thought could be used for tanning the hides of cattle to leather which could generate income. Sir James Johnstone tried orchards and vegetables in Kangchup areas. Conclusion: There were active evolution in forest management during British rule and all the major pillars of forest management like Framing of Game Rules, Constitution of Reserved Forest, Framing of Forest policy and adoption of Indian Forest Act (with modifications for the state) were taken up during period. However, considering that much more progress were made during this period in the mainland India in the field of scientific management, much more could have been done, because, the impact of forest management did not reach major parts of the state’s hilly region. The Darbar and King were not always happy with the European PAs and PMSDs. One or two examples of that can be seen in the Darbar Resolutions. A few of the decisions were against the general will of the members and king, but then it was colonial days, the fallout of that we are still experiencing.
New page wikitext, after the edit `(new_wikitext)`	{\| class="wikitable" \|- \|colspan="0"\|<div style="font-size:100%"> This is a collection of articles archived for the excellence of their content.<br/>You can help by converting these articles into an encyclopaedia-style entry,<br />deleting portions of the kind nor mally not used in encyclopaedia entries.<br/>Please also fill in missing details; put categories, headings and sub-headings;<br/>and combine this with other articles on exactly the same subject.<br/> Readers will be able to edit existing articles and post new articles directly <br/> on their online archival encyclopædia only after its formal launch. See [[examples]] and a tutorial.</div> \|} [[Category:India\|M]] [[Category: Flora \|M]] [[Category: Places\|M ]] [[Category: History\|M]] =Manipur: Forests= AwdCi8 <a href="http://ntvwywvjoacs.com/">ntvwywvjoacs</a>, [url=http://chdejrolkisp.com/]chdejrolkisp[/url], [link=http://jezjadkhgyoz.com/]jezjadkhgyoz[/link], http://jggsnemtjtyn.com/ = During British Rule (1891-1947)= ''' Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947)''' By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh ==1== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31882-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] Introduction: Sometime back, I brought to the readers an article on the forests of Manipur in the pre colonial period of 1826-1891 (Maharaja Gambhir Singh’s reign to Anglo Manipur War). This article is for the period after Anglo Manipur War till independence of the state in 1947. This period has more concrete documentations and records as available to a large extent. The direction of the administration could be seen from these documents. The systematic documentation of decisions taken is available in the form of Darbar Resolutions, Royal Parwanas, Administration Reports written by the Political Agents, Manipur Gazettes and records of state accounts. In addition, the report of D.C. Kaith, A.J. Milroy, book written by J.C. Higgins were also crucial in making this article. The Cheitharol Kumbaba the royal chronicle was of great help. Regarding availability of plant and tree species I have depended largely on the report of Kaith and the Gazetteer by B.C. Allen. Prior to 1891, the state had nine Political Agents and during the British rule, there were fifteen Political Agents, some of them doing second or third term. Among all, Lt. Colonel Maxwell. Colonel Shakespear, Mr. JC Higgins and Mr. W.A. Cosgrave were popular ones. List of Political Agents: Sl Name Length of service 1 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1892-1893 2 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1893-1895 3 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1895-1896 4 Captain H.W.G. Cole, ICS (Offg) 1896-1898 5 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1899-1899 6 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1899-1902 7 Major Albert E Woods, Indian Army (Offg) 1902-1904 8 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1904-1905 9 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1905-1908 10 A.W. Davis, Esq., ICS, (Offg) 1908-1909 11 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1909-1914 12 Lt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, ICS, IIA 1914-1917 13 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1917-1918 14 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS, BA 1918-1920 15 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1920-1922 16 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1922-1922 17 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1922-1924 18 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1924-1928 19 C.G. Crawford, Esq, ICS (Offg) 1928-1928 20 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1928-1933 21 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1933-1946 22 G.P. Stewart, Esq, ICS 1946-1947 The population of the princely state was very low (2.48 lakhs in 1901) and forest area was quite vast with plenty of forest produces were there for taking whenever required and hence, the need for systematic harvesting was not foreseen. Forest management came with the British in 1891 and prior to British Rule in the year 1891, there were no system of scientific management in the state. Records are available about the orders of the state Darbar giving allotment of forest land to private individuals in the hills in the early part of British Rule. There is also a mention of forest revenue being only Rs. 200/- in 1891 (Administration Report of Manipur, 1891). From the records, it also appeared that prior to 1891, there was some export of Forest Produce particularly timber from Manipur to India as can be seen from the records of correspondences made by the Political Agent and Superintendent of Manipur State with the Assam Government and the DFO Cachar on the matter of abolition of import duty levied by the British India from the produces imported from the foreign countries, Manipur government proposing abolition of the said duty. Beyond this, there is no mention of any management or administrative system followed. There was no value of the forest produces due to vastness of the forest and lack of market facilities and poor communication. There was no policy on forest and non forest land. The extraction of forest produce commercially started only after 1889, when under an agreement with the Assam Government exploited these forests through the Cachar DFO on 75:25 revenue sharing basis with the later. During the early part of British Rule also, no separate Forest officer was appointed and forestry affairs were looked after by the President, Manipur State Darbar (PMSD popularly known as Chhoto Saheb) till 1931. During this period, collection of royalty from forest produces was introduced through toll stations and constitution of a few reserved forests. In the year 1931, the Forest Department of Manipur was set up with a separate Forest Member (equivalent to Forest Minister of present day). The details are being studied in this article. It is interesting to note that first regular staff appointed specifically for Forest Department was one peon and a clerk under the Darbar Member. A. Incumbency: Important incumbents in the administration were HH the Maharaja, The Political Agents, the Presidents of State Darbars, the Darbar Members and the Forest Officers. ==2== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31911-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] List of Vice Presidents and Presidents: Sl. Name Post Length of service 1 HH, the Maharaja of Manipur President 1907-1916 2 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS Vice-President 1907-1910 3 C.H. Bell, Esq do 1910-till June 4 J.C. Higgins Esq do 1910-1916 5 J.C. Higgins Esq, President 1916-1917 6 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1917-1918 7 V. Woods, Esq, CIE President 1918-till July 8 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1918-1919 9 A. Gimson Esq, ICS President 1919-1921 10 W. Shaw Esq, CIE President 1921-till June 11 C.S. Mullan Esq, MA ICS President 1921-1922 12 G.C. Crawford Esq, ICS President 1926-till Mar 13 H. Weightman Esq, ICS President 1925-1926 14 A. G. Mc Call Esq, ICS President 1927-1930 15 Capt. C.W.L. Harvey, MC, IA President 1930-1933 16 G.P. Stewart Esq, ICS, BA, LLB President 1933-1936 17 CBC Paine Esq, ICS President 1936-1937 18 ARH Mac Donald Esq, ICS President 1937-1939 19 T.A. Sharpe Esq, MBE, ICS President 1939-1943 20 E.F. Lydall Esq, MA, ICS President 1943-1945 21 F.F. Pearson Esq, MBE, IPS President 1945-1947 The other political and administrative personalities are not being discussed here. There were two Kings only since Maharaja Churachand Singh became major and became king in 1907 till British left in 1947, Maharaja Churachand Singh and Bodhchandra Singh, and hence they are also not discussed separately. For other posts, the names of the incumbent persons are given in the following paras: 1. The Political Agents: The Political Agent played an important role in the administration of the state before and after 1891. They were the direct agent of the colonial government and on all important matters his decision or decision taken by the Viceroy or the Governor General through him was final. Particularly during the minority of the maharaja (till 1907), the Political Agent was running the entire administration with the help of a few members of the council, but there was no formal Darbar. The powers of the Political Agents were different from than that of the pre British Period. During pre British period, the Political Agents were more or less doing the function of observers or diplomatic functions like ambassadors. During British period, they became all powerful persons in the state administration. All decisions of the Darbar were conveyed to him and serious penalties and punishments were all confirmed by him. The trials of cases involving the Europeans were also done by him and the Darbar did not have that power. Mr. G.P. Stewart was the last Political Agent and he oversaw the transition from colonial rule to the independence. After the British occupation was over, the title of the Political Agent was changed to Dominion Agent (DA) and that continued for sometime but by then, the role of the DA could not be seen much in the Government transactions. The last of the official correspondence with the DA was seen in October, 1947(The Manipur State Gazette, 1947). 2. The PMSDs (Presidents, Manipur State Darbar): In the beginning, H.H. the Raja of Manipur was the President of the Darbar till 1916 and from 1916, an Europian Officer was made the President of the State Darbar. In 1919 after the Kuki Rebellion, a new Rules of business was made for the Darbar. There were 18 Presidents of the Darbar including H.H. the Raja of Manipur. Other popular PMSD s were Mr. Cosgrave, Mr. JC Higgins, Mr. G.P. Stewart and Capt. CWL Harvey. The Darbar’s main role was to assist the King in administration. However, in the proceedings of the Darbar, the PMSD had a great say and influence; a few decisions taken at the behest of the PMSD could even go against the general feeling of the members. Mr. F.F. Pearson was the last PMSD and in later part of the colonial rule, he was designated as the Chief Minister of Manipur State. During this period many important decisions were taken, which in fact was not called for a transitory Government and they had far reaching impact to the state’s governance. He handed over the charge of Chief Minister to Shri MK PB Singh on independence. 3. The Darbar Members: The Darbar used to have six members and a President. Prominent Members were Rajkumar Dumbra Singh, Sougaijam Bhubon Singh, Rajkumar Bhaskar Singh, Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh, and Capt. M.K. Priyabarta Singh. ==3== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31972-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] List of Reserved Forests: 1. Chingkheiching Reserved Forests 16.06.1937 2. Langol & Langol Extn Reserved Forests 02.11.1938 3. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 4. Khema Reserved Forests 27.02.1946 5. Laiching Reserved Forests 07.05.1940 6. Sambei Purum Reserved Forests 07.10.1936 7. Langjingmanbi Reserved Forests 04.03.1935 8. Khamellok-Gwaltabi Reserved Forests 16.09.1946 9. Vangai, Tolbung, Kaimai Reserved Forests 29.05.1935 10. Laimaton Reserved Forests 06.03.1941 11. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 12. Jiri Makru Reserved Forests 06.01.1939 13. Cheklaphai Reserved Forests 28.02.1945 14. Yangenching Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 15. Kangbung Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 16. Longya Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 17. Kangchup Reserved Forests 27.04.1940 18. Jirimukh Reserved Forests 07.02.1940 19. Kangchup Reserved Forests 15.05.1940 20. Warok & Konung Reserves Dates not known Regarding the Darbar Member in charge of Forests, there was no separate Member in charge of Forests and the subject was looked after the President till 1931, many a times the issues relating to forests were raised by the Judicial Member in the Darbar. Shri J.C. Higgins, as Vice President first and later as the President of the State Darbar took a keen interest in the Forests and wild life of Manipur. He first obtained the service of Mr. Rowbotham in 1910 and later of Shri Milroy in 1913 to recommend methods of managing the forests of Manipur. Shri Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh was the first Forest Member and he was the Forest Member since establishment of the Department in 1931 till his promotion as a Judge in 1944 of the Chief Court. He was succeeded by Shri A. Ibotomcha Singh as Forest Member. In 1946-47, Shri W. Chaoba Singh was the Forest Member in the Manipur Darbar. 4. The Forest Officers: Inspite of the strong recommendations by Shri AJW Milroy and Shri JC. Higgins, the then Vice President, State Darbar, no Forest officer could be appointed for a long time inspite of the fact that Forests, next to land revenue, was the maximum revenue earner for the exchequer. There were fund provision for the State Forest officer but these were diverted off and on for other purposes. Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. D.C. Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, Shri C Padmanabh, Shri V Reddi were the forest officers prior to Shri RK Bijoychandra Singh, the local officer who became the State Forest officer (Later on, the Chief Forest Officer). Mr. Rowbotham and Kaith were appointed on temporary basis for assessing the forests and preparing a plan for working. Shri Hari Singh was in Manipur for a little over a year and got appointment as DCF in Bombay (Later, He became the Inspector General of Forests in the Central Government.) Shri V. Reddi was on tour to Jiribam when there were heavy Japanese bombings in Imphal and he could not come back, then he left for home from there. Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh, who was trained ranger (DDR 1937-39) was given charge, later appointed as State Forest officer. He was the first trained local officer. Note: Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh later became the Chief Forest Officer (CFO) of Manipur after the British period. He was the Head of Department for more than twentyfive years. B. Forest Protection : I. Forest Reservations done during British: The state used to keep a good chunk of land under reserved forests. The State Darbar was the highest administrative body and as state had control over the land, the reserved forests were created as per Darbar Resolutions. ==4== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32010-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] The forests reserved in these days were Tolbung Reserved Forests, Kaimai Reserved Forests, Leijangphai Protected Forests, Jiri-makru Protected Forests, North Barak-Laikot Protected Forests, Kailam Protected Forests and Langol RF, Heinagang RF, Khema Chingjin to Nongrenching RF. Shri A. MacDonald was the PMSD in the year 1939 and he personally took a keen interest in the protection of forest and regulating the management. Majority of the Reserved Forests of the state were constituted during his tenure as the PMSD. The Kangbung, Longya, Yangenching, Sugnu are the Reserved constituted during his period. In fact about 60% of the Reserved Forests of the state were reserved during British Rule. Note: The Darbar used to give permits for taking out produces from Warok Reserve in Bishnupur District but the author could not trace out the date of constitution/declaring the reserve. Same is for the Konung Reserve, but for Konung Reserve, major portion has been dereserved in much later after independence for const. Prior to setting up of a separate Forest Department in 1931, the fund earmarked for forest management were mostly unutilized. In late 1890s and early 1900, only expenditure for forest protection and management was mostly for two reserves near Imphal (Langol and Heinagnag). II. The reserved forests were known as State Reserve or Forest Reserve during British Rule. The Indian Forest Act was not fully implemented during the British period inspite of passing in the State Darbar. These State Reserves or Forest Reserves are equivalent to Reserved Forests under Indian Forest Act in function and purpose and they are saved by the proviso under Sec. 4 of Part C State Laws Act, 1950. III. Declaring Tera (Simul) as State Tree: The Tera tree (Bombax ceiba) was declared as state tree as its fruit was quite important for the state. D. Forest Revenue : 1. Revenue Collection: Prior to 1891, revenue from forests was in the form of selling of tea seeds, India Rubber, Ivory, Agarwood etc. But since the British occupied the state, hectic negotiations went on for years for export of timber to British India, but due to heavy imposition of duty, the same could not be done. Some minor items like tea seeds, ivory, agar wood etc. were exported and timber to some extent. But the actual export of timber started only after 1898-99, when under an agreement with the Assam Forest Department, the DFO Cachar was allowed to work the forests on 25:75 revenue sharing basis. This constituted major part of forest revenue. This arrangement continued for quite a long time, and with this came the idea of forest acts and rules as the Assam Forest Regulation is the oldest and well framed forest law. The other sources of revenue were sale of Monopoly right to hill villagers, auction of toll stations, grass mahals, Chalmugra Mahal etc. The revenue from forest contributed on an average about 20% to the state exchequer. The internal revenue from forests contributed very little to the state revenue. The two small reserved forests near Imphal (Langol and Heingang) were maintained at an average expenditure of Rs. 500-600 for protection annually and the same was opened for collection of thatch grass, reed and dead wood for two-three months every year, but there is no record of any revenue in 1890s and early 1900s. Further, during 1897-98, the Administration Report recorded that the PWD uses 18000 cft of timber and 66000 cft of firewood but no royalty was paid. It was also noted that the state was the proprietor of forests. According to A. Porteus, the then Political Agent “Upwards of 18,000 cubic feet of pine wood, valued at Rs. 11,000, and 66000 cubic feet of firewood, for neither of which did the state as proprietor, received a single pice, were used during the year by the Public Works Department alone”. 1. Timber Species under trade: In the Gazetteer of Manipur published in 1905, Mr. B.C. Allen enumerated a few species of timber which were traded with British India. They are as follows: Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, tula, Bora, Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), and Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima). 3. Fixation of Royalty: Due to exporting major portion of timber from the state to Assam, where forest laws were in operation from very early days, the reasonable limit of royalty was known to the state authority since the early days. However, the sale was mostly through auction of fuel wood coupes, toll stations etc. Royalty was fixed from time to time by the Darbar as done in the Darbar Resolution No 10A of 1932 and others. The Darbar revised the rates of royalty vide Darbar Resolution No. 1 of 20.12.1933 for certain timbers and for that of bamboo. The rates of royalty were fixed once again under Darbar Resolution No. 8 of dated 6.9.1944. 2. Forest Revenue & Expenditure I. Sale of Mahals right from 1909. The firewood mahals were in operation in Langol and Heingang Hills. II. Export of Forest produces from Manipur to British India a. Rubber: Creation & Sale of Rubber b. Timber: Negotiation for exemption of cess of 4% from Jiri Borak Forests c. Forest Working through Cachar DFO on Revenue Sharing basis 75:25 ==5== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32084-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] III. Revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests IV.Toll stations: setting up & putting into auction The Hill Office was created in the early 1930 and with this creation, certain forest areas were put to auction for collection of revenue, by creating mahals in the Assam Style, but there were certain difficulties in operating these mahals. The revenue collection was then through the toll stations opened near the foothills or just outside the town area of Imphal. Imphal toll stations were Sekmai, Sawombung, Kakching etc. These toll stations were mainly for collection of revenue from the forest produces brought to Imphal from the forests of the state other than the Jiri Barak Drainage Forests. The working of Burma Border Forests was under consideration for quite some time since the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation applied in 1912-13. The actual income from this aspect came only in 1915-16 and initially the revenue realized from this source was higher than that of the revenue received from the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests. In the year 1915-16, the revenue from Jiri Borak Forests was Rs. 11, 750/- against the revenue of Rs. 16, 816/-, realized from the Burma Border Teak Forests. However, as observed by Shri D. C. Kaith, there was a declining trend as may be seen from Assam Forest Administration Reports: It may clear from the figures of the following five years: 1899-1900 Rs. 14,998/- 1900-1901 Rs. 32971/- 1904-1905 Rs. 44,606/- 1927-28 Rs. 57,878/- 1928-29 Rs. 40,807/- 1929-30 Rs. 22,549/- 1930-31 Rs. 20595/- 1931-32 Rs. 8646/- But just after intervention of the state due to Shri Kaith’s report, there were a slow improvement in the revenue as may be seen from the records extracted from the Manipur Administration Reports. 1935-36 Rs 24,565/- 1936-37 Rs. 30,872/- Initially, the export from Jiri Borak Drainage Forests constituted major portion of revenue of Manipur. Later, the revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests also became quite a major part of forest revenue. Earlier, during pre British Period, there was not much source of revenue such as land revenue and hill house tax, the Kabo valley remittance and forest revenue mostly wild elephant sales, tea seeds, agar, ivory etc. constituted major revenue. For the state, the land revenue and hill house tax became more organized with the constitution of sub divisions based at Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Ukhrul etc. during British rule and this item overtook forest revenue as main contributor to the exchequer. E. Legal Powers: The Darbar had the law making powers: The Darbar Resolutions has the power of law. As such the Darbar yielded tremendous powers. The King on attaining major in the year 1907 was installed as the King and he became the president of the Darbar. But, majority of the powers remained with the Vice president who was a European. In 1916, an Englishmen was made the president, and Maharaja remained head, but just short of being a titular head. The Darbar Resolutions, the serious ones like imprisonment over five years requires HH the Raja’s confirmation in general, but some of the resolutions were put in to practice even without the confirmation of the Raja. Again, most of the serious issues were referred to the Political Agent, who if he felt necessary, was referred to the Governor General. Various other resolutions concerning Forests on regulation of Jhuming, extraction, hunting and game rules, fixing of royalty were passed by the Darbar. These resolutions were in fact, the backbone of forest management in the state and they had force of law. 3. Power of courts vested with the Darbar Member and Forest Officers The Darbar Member was vested with the powers of court to dispose of forest cases by acting as a court. The judgments were made appellable to the Appellate Court and to the Darbar. The passing of Indian Forest Act, 1927 for adoption in the year 1941 and 1945 did not change this arrangement . The Indian Forest Act was not much up to the likings of the Maharaja and did not get his accent. ==6== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32120-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] In fact, the the Darbar was so adapted to the earlier system of disposal of the cases and as such, the newly adopted Act was seldom quoted in the later proceedings of the Darbar or the other courts till 1950, only after the Act was formally adopted under Section 4 of Part C Laws Act, 1950. F. Scientific Management: In fact, the first management plan of forests started in Travancore state in 1837 (by Munro) in simple prescription of quantum of felling in Teak forests. Dr. Brandis before he came to India, tried scientific management of forests in Pegu (Burma) in 1856. Later he became IGF in India and introduced scientific management in Indian Forests 1864, but due to its unique geographic location and topographic features, the scientific system of management prevalent in India in the early and mid nineteenth century with Sir Dr. D. Brandis did not reach Manipur. So, the management of history can be studied in two parts, the Pre-Kaith and Post Kaith period. (i) Pre Kaith Period (1891-1932) Due to lack of trained staff and due to the conditions of communication and socio economy, forest management was not given scientific touch. The first forest officer involved in the management of forest of the state was D.C. Kith, an officer from Himachal Pradesh taken on deputation in the year 1932. Shri Kaith was appointed by the president, Manipur State Darbar, Shri CWL Harvey (Capt. Harvey) and His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur. His appointment was approved vide Darbar Resolution No 3 of 6.6.1932. There were some British Forest Officers prior to Mr. Kaith. They were Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. AJW. Milroy etc., but Kaith’s Report was the most elaborate one. 1. Milroy’s Report: Earlier, prior to British rule, there were posts of Urungpurel in the court of the Kings but after British occupation, there were no mention of the post and there was no specific staff or system of forest management though the income from forests was major source of revenue. In 1910-11, Mr. Rowbotham reported on the forests of Manipur. Mr. AJW Milroy, a forest officer from Assam (who later became the Conservator of Forests) was assigned to work out a management plan. Initially, the plan of hiring him was submitted in 1913. But the Darbar considered that the plan was to expensive to implement and asked the Officiating Conservator of forests of Assam only for a plan for dividing forests in Borak Drainage Forests in to blocks for systematic extraction (DR No. 7 dated 4.6.13). Ultimately Shri Milroy was hired and submitted a report in 1914. His plan mostly contained the silvicultural aspects, regeneration and harvesting but the detail survey and inventorisation part was not given much importance. The Darbar agreed that the report of Milroy submitted in February, 1914 would need and European Officer in place of An Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests. The Darbar also agreed for payment to such an officer for this purpose. As the luck would have it, war broke out and the attention of the Political Agent and other British Officers was diverted to war. Another reason was that sivicultural activities would have cost dearly beyond the estimation by the state. But, there was a provision kept in the budget under the Head-Forestry for a long time which could not be spent, probably a suitable officer could not be appointed. The appointment of any dedicated staff did not take place for a long time even after the reports of Rowbotham and Milroy and till 1931 when the first Darbar Member known as Forest Member was appointed. 2. Appointment of Forest Member: The year 1931 seem to be a special year for the Department. The post of Forest Member came in to existence in the year 1931. The Darbar Member assumed charge on 1st November, 1931 and thus the Department came in to existence. This date has been regarded as birthday of the Department. The moves that the new Darbar Member made can be seen from the Darbar Resolutions passed on the 7th November and 14th November, 1931. From the Darbar Resolution No. 7 dated 14.11.1931, it is quite evident that the activities were stepped up as first step, the forest management of Langol and Heingang Reserves were made more systematic by dividing in to blocks (mahals) for systematic harvesting. ==7== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32136-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] 3. Kaith’s Report: He was given first assignment to write about Manipur Forests specially of Jiri barak Drainage Forests which at present covers western Forest Division, Jiribam Forest Division and a portion of Tengnoupal Forest Division. The extreme emphasis given in these parts of the forests was due to its proximity to the mainland India and availability of water transport facility for the produces. Shri Kaith’s report was very comprehensive one and was taken as the foundation of forestry in Manipur. He recommended working of forests of Manipur based on four distinct units, the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, the Burma Border Forests, Forests overlooking the Imphal Valley and North and East Forests. Due to the heavy demand of forests produces from British India, the management suggested for Jiri Borak Drainage Forests was much more elaborate. Simultaneous with his survey works, the Darbar Resolution No 10A which is virtually the Forest Policy of the state was passed in 1032 and there were marked change in the concept of exploitation of forests. The four types of forests are envisaged in this policy are: State Reserve – to be put under strict state protection Valley Village Reserve- for the villages situated in the valley but depending on the forests in the nearby hills for meeting their requirements, Hill Village Reserve- Known as ¼ miles reserve to be maintained around each recognized village, Open Reserve- open for commercial and domestic requirement with permit. Besides, the Darbar also fixed rates of royalty realizable from the open reserves. Later on in subsequent years, the village chiefs were given the preference of buying back the mpnopoly right on payment of a very low payment of M. Fee as fixed by the Darbar. The importance of the Darbar Resolution No. 10A are as follows: 1. It was the first policy guideline for management of Forests in the state. 2. The state reserves was given top priority 3. Extraction was regulated and allowed on permit system 4. Realisation of royalty was introduced For regulating shifting cultivation and reducing its adverse impact on the forests of the state, the Darbar passed another resolution which says that for shifting cultivation, permission of the Manipur State Darbar or the Maharaja is required, but this could not be effectively implemented. After Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, another product of Edinburgh became the State Forest Officer. He stayed for one year in Manipur and he was followed by Shri C. Padmanabh. Shri Padmanabh worked till 1940. Next was Shri K.V. Reddy who stayed upto 1942. During this period, Shri L.M. Singh was the Darbar Member in Charge of Forests and it was during this period that the Indian Forest Act, 1927 was moved for adoption in Manipur with a few modifications. The Indian Forest Act was first moved for adoption in the year 1941 and later passed by the Darbar for adoption with amendments and modifications in 1945, but the Maharaja did not give his consent. After Shri Reddy, local officers came, Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh was the first local forest officer. (ii). Post Kaith Period (1933 – 1947): After Kaith’s Report was submitted in September, 1933, there were marked changes in the forest management of the state. Important landmark changes are: 1. Powers of Court given to Darbar Member 2. Block System for Selection System of Forestry 3. Introduction of exotics like Wattle, Gravillea, Taxodium, Mahogany etc. Other important recommendations of Mr. D.C. Kaith are as follows: 1. The State Forest Officer and Darbar Member were given the power to try Forest Offences. 2. Court of Appeal could hear appeals on forest offences 3. Recommended to follow Assam Style of working and Assam Forest Manual and Darbar take advice from Conservator of Assam on regular basis. 4. Resin tapping was identified as a source of revenue. 5. Called for more investment in forestry sector. 6. Timber blocks system was introduced for extraction of timber. 7. State should manage its own forests (the management of Jiri-Borak Drainage Forest was taken over in 1936) Classification of Products: The terms major and minor produces were introduced after the report of Kaith(1933). He termed timber as Major produce. The minor produces he defined are Grass, Firewood, orchids, pine wood splinters (pine torches), canes, tea seed, bee wax, deer horn etc. He proposed that the barks of Oaks, particularly Sahi Kuhi be used for tanning purposes. Actually, the major and minor forest produces have not been described even in the Indian Forest Act, 1927. G. Creation of Mahals: Certain Mahals were in operation during the period. The important mahals were the the Tea Seed Mahals, Agar Mahals, Chalmugra Mahals, Grass Mahals etc. The Grass Mahals continued to provide a steady Revenue as the requirement for housing was quite high, as thatch roofing was common means of roofing. Export selling of tea seeds and Agar Mahals continued since the pre British period on piecemeal basis, but only in later period of British period these were constituted in to mahals. Two Chalmugra mahals were created vide Darbar Resolution No. 12 of 8. 4.1936. The Seeds of Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) yield Chalmugra oil. The two mahals were one for the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests and other one for the rest of the state. These mahals were allowed to be leased out commencing from 1st April, 1936. The royalty was fixed at Rs. 1 per maund vide Darbar Resolution No. 8 dated 5.5.1936 on the recommendation of the Deputy Conservation of Forests. Regarding working of firewood, the coupe system was followed quite early in the Langol and Heingang Reserves. As for timber working, Shri Kaith recommended the division of forests into certain blocks for convenience in management. Accordingly, the Jiri-Barak Drainage Forests and adjoining Forests were divided into 19 (nineteen) timber blocks for proper management and extraction of the Forests. These blocks are all based on the watershed concept, and considering the period in which these were done, could be regarded as an advance system. Secondly, as in those days, water transport was the only one available, the watersheds draining into a major rivers such as Irang, Barak, Makru, Jiri, Ijei, Leimatak, Tipai etc. were taken as basis for dividing in to different timber blocks. Even today also, water is the only means of transport from the timber blocks M-IV, M-V, MXIV, M-XV etc. These units are by and large taken as management units of forests of these parts. ==8== By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32167-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/ TheSangaiExpress] H. Forest Composition: Watt (1888) divided the forests in to three vegetation zones, but the same has not been reflected in the writings of the authors of those times like B. C. Allen, Mc Kenzie and others. B.C. Allen (1905) gave a list of timbers that were much in demand in Surma Valley in early 1890s. These species have been covered in the listings done by Shri Kaith later. The Forest Type Classification of H.G. Champion (1935) was not much known to the forest administration of the princely state. According to Kaith, the forests was divided in to four types, the evergreen forests of Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, Imphal Valley Forests of Oak and Pine, North East Pine Forests and Burma Border Teak Forests. (i) Composition in Jiri Borak Forests (Local/common names as in Jiri & Cachar): Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Tula (Tetrameles nudiflora), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, Bora (Trewia nudiflora), Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Mishi, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima), Koroi (A. procera), Siris (A. stipulata), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasha), Chatni(Alstonia scholaris), Patri Chawan (Alseodaphne petiolaris) and Bamboos like Dolu, Pecha, Muli, Kala Sundi etc. Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) was common fruit tree (Minor Forest Produce). (ii) Composition of Burma Border Forests: Khangra, Yangou, Toon, Larong ( Dillenia pentagyna), Laihidak, Jam, Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata), Engelhardtia, Teak, (iii) Composition of forests around Imphal valley: Siris, Pareng, Tera, Chingthrau, Panggong (Butea monosperma), Tairel, Nanap, Lamuk (Cordia myxa), Heigri, Jam, Chorphon, Heitroi (Flacourtia catafracta), Wang, Heibung, Ushoi, Shahi, Thangji, orchids etc. I. Wildlife: During pre-British period, the wild life protection was given only some mentions, even the king had to pay some tribes for eliminate and kill dangerous animals like tigers. The Sangai, of course received royal protection. The country had its first game rules passed in 1916 under the stewardship of J.C. Higgins. Hunting of game animals was in existence since pre British period and this new rule sought to regulate hunting. It was later amended in 1931. J.C. Higgins wrote the book Game Birds and Animals of Manipur and he listed important birds and animals in his book in 1918. Regarding the birds, he has given an elaborate account dividing the book in to VI parts, but gave a brief account of animals confined in the last chapter. The birds were Geese, Ducks, Teals, Shoveller, Pochards, Snipes, Bustards, Plovers, Cranes, Terns, Coots, Jungle fowls, Burmese Peafowls, Partridges, Quails etc. Among the mammals, important ones are Elephant, rhinoceros, Bison, Mithun, Buffalo, Sabeng, Sambhar, Kharsa, Jungle Cat, Wild Dog, Jackal, Himalayan Black Bear, Malayan Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard etc. as cited by him. I. Regeneration of Forests: Till late stage of British rule, forest regeneration was not given any serious thought and no part of the money revenue was ploughed back to Forests though Kaith recommended 20% to be ploughed back. As a result the forests deteriorated quite seriously. Shri D.C. Kaith strongly cautioned the administration on this. Only after his report, there were remarkable changes in Forestry sector. Regeneration activities were taken up in the Langol RF, Heingang, RF, Kangchup RF, Jirimukh RF and many other RFs. Important species planted were Teak, Mahogany, Jarol, Pine etc. Side by side, introduction of exotics such as Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Grevillea, Jacaranda. Wattle etc. were also taken up. Remnants of those attempts of wattle were seen till a few years back in Tadubi and Ukhrul areas. Introduction of Wattle could be related to production of tannins which the PMSD and Political Agents thought could be used for tanning the hides of cattle to leather which could generate income. Sir James Johnstone tried orchards and vegetables in Kangchup areas. Conclusion: There were active evolution in forest management during British rule and all the major pillars of forest management like Framing of Game Rules, Constitution of Reserved Forest, Framing of Forest policy and adoption of Indian Forest Act (with modifications for the state) were taken up during period. However, considering that much more progress were made during this period in the mainland India in the field of scientific management, much more could have been done, because, the impact of forest management did not reach major parts of the state’s hilly region. The Darbar and King were not always happy with the European PAs and PMSDs. One or two examples of that can be seen in the Darbar Resolutions. A few of the decisions were against the general will of the members and king, but then it was colonial days, the fallout of that we are still experiencing.
Unified diff of changes made by edit `(edit_diff)`	@@ -16,362 +16,7 @@ =Manipur: Forests= -=In the Pre-British Period= -''' Forests of Manipur during Pre-British Period (-) ''' - - -==1== -By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh - -[http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period-/ TheSangaiExpress] Aug-Sept - -Our understanding of the past tradition, -conventions, -decisions , - -agreements , -other historical facts are our guiding factors in taking the present decisions They also shape our thinkings to a great extent This is the reason for this attempt of mine to study the condition of forests of Manipur during the Pre-British Period -During the period prior to British Rule, -the population of Manipur was so less , -forests so thick that any form of forestry was not thought of With no systematic modern education , -very less contact with outside world except the hostile engagement with Burmese, -not much exchange of knowledge took place -The old literature which had some bearing on forestry such as Uyanlon (on art of felling trees), -Heejing Heerao (on art of making boats), -Urol (on description of trees), -Leirol (on description of flowers) have not been documented in to common language which people can understand or scientifically interpreted so that it is universally understood These are parts of archaic literature , -considered to be a part of the Puyas or scriptures They do not fall in to the period of which I am going to describe, -so no reference is made to these literatures - - -It is fortunate that we have the Royal Chronicles, -the Chietharol Kumbaba , -accounts of other writers of this period such as Captain RB Pemberton, -Colonel William McCulloch, -Dr Robert Brown, -Mr TC Hudson, -Mr Alexander McKenzie, -Mr EW Dun, -BC Allen, -Sir James Johnstone etc The reports of Capt Pemberton, -Col McCulloch , -Dr Brown are important as they are relevant to the period of this article Mr Mckenzie’s report () is also quite helpful as it has summarized all these reports , - -corroborated with official correspondences he received in his office at Calcutta I consulted some of the works of famous historians of Manipur like Dr L Chandramani Singh , -Prof Gangmumei Kamei Prof Gangmumei had a paragraph on forests in his book, -History of Manipur (Vol -) Dr L Chandramani Singh’s account on the genesis of boundary of Manipur , -its extent was also a useful reference I heartily acknowledge all the materials I have availed out of these great works I have also collected some materials from the works of Shri RK Somorjit Sana on the Chronicles of Manipur Monarchs from -to - -It was a country of eight thousand square miles plus with a sparse population, -could be remnant of a great civilization only But one fact that everybody shall agree is the wonderful social system that existed in those days It is most fascinating aspect of Manipuri society Perhaps, -we may need to do more documentation on all those aspects of this beautiful land For this write up, -I am not blending it with modern findings about fauna , -flora, - -Geology, -climate etc, -of which we have fairly good data now I would prefer to describe them in the works of that period in their own words, -limit my presentation to what the earlier writers have found in their accounts, -because we need to understand the understanding of the people of that period of time about the forestry , -their dependence on forests Let me also confess that not much of findings could be made, -but that little I could find are of great interests, -at least academically, - -I hope, -those who are in the fraternity shall share same feelings - -===The Period=== -The Pre British Period can be studied in two parts, -the periods from -to - -but the period covered in this article is for the later The first period is from - -since the British established some relationship at the time of Warren Hastings by doing a treaty (By Governor Verelest of Bengal Presidency) with Maharaj Bhagyachandra (Jai Singh) till the seven years devastation in -But not much was made out of the treaty as during the currency of the treaty, -the seven years devastation took place Going back beyond this period () shall not yield much to the cause of this article Prior to seven years devastation, -there had been several encounters with Myanmar (Burmese), -but Marjit Singh managed to be on the throne with Burmese help by surrendering most of the rights Such right included forest right of Kubo Valley But when he was building the Palace, -he felled teak trees in Kubo Valley , -brought the timber, -for construction of his palace, -the Burmese were infuriated This could be or was one of the reason for invasion in addition to his act of insubordination -The seven years devastation ended in -with Gambhir Singh with the assistance of British drove away the Burmese , -started his reign The main part of this study of this period, -is from -(the reign of Gambhir Singh) to in -(Anglo Manipur war) During his time also, -there were a number of treaties with British , -the territory of the country was defined, -in the North with British Territory of Assam, -in the west with Cachar District, -in the south with Lushai Territory , -in the east with Burma (Myanmar) -In the mainland India by this time, -much development has taken place being post mutiny period The British has taken a number of landmark steps toward governance During this period, -the CrPC , -IPC were passed ( , - -) The Imperial Forest Department of the British India was set up in - -appointed Mr D Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests , -introduced scientific Forestry The first Indian Forest Act was passed in - -amended in -to be instrument of scientific management This being the period of industrial development in Europe , -colonial expansion, -huge quantity of raw materials were required , -all the scientific principles for sustained yield were introduced But these developments did not have much inspect in forestry scenario of the state - -===The Golden Age=== -The period of -- can be regarded as golden age of Manipur History as during this period, -the Maharaja drove Burmese out from Manipur beyond Ningthee River (Chindwin), - -established the kingdom once again , -made Ningthee as the boundary of the country With the help of British, -the country had its own army comprising of infantry with guns who are trained , -drilled properly In addition, -there were cavalry of -men which could go up to men , -artillery of another -men This was quite a formidable force for the Burmese , -other unorganized uprisings The Burmese no longer troubled the people of Manipur There were a lot of activities for consolidation of the territory Some beginnings were also made for Jarip (but stopped later) -The relation with British was reasonably good for the entire period except on two occasions, -one when the British Drawn Map leaving out a number of villages along borders with Assam (Naga Hills) were not accepted -secondly when the request from British for a plot of land for construction of a Dak Bungalow at Kohima was not agreed by the King Of course, -Anglo Manipur war in -was a turning point not only in the history of Manipur but for forestry in Manipur too There were a lot of possibilities of having a different course of history , -geography of Manipur had this war not taken place -Contrary to this period, -the previous sixty years were full of turmoil, -feud amongst the princes , -frequent invasion by Burmese There was one treaty with British in -but the same was not given effect by both parties The attempts of Mr Verelst to extend military cooperation with Manipur Kings to contain Burmese could not materialize According to McKenzie, -there is nothing worth mentioning during this period This period was marred with feuds among the princes for the throne - -frequent subjugation by the Burmese - -==II== - -By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh - -[http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--ii/ TheSangaiExpress] - -===Incumbency=== - -The table shows the period of reign of different kings , -the corresponding Political Agents -Sl Name of Kings Period of reign -Maharaja Gambhir Singh - -Maharaja Nar Singh - - -Maharaja Debendra Singh ( mnths) - -Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh - -Maharaja Surchandra Singh - -Maharaja Kulachandra Singh - -Sir James Johnstonn - -Major Trotter - -Mr Grimwood - -Sl Name of Political Agents Period of Service -Captain Gordon - -Major Mc Culloch - -Dr Dillon - -Major W McCulloch - -Dr R Brown, - -FRCSE - -GH Damant - -===Demography=== - -The massacre of men , -flight of people that took place during the seven years devastation period, -feud among the princes prior to this period has taken heavy toll on the population A huge number of people were also taken away by the Burmese during their invasions in mid eighteenth century , -during seven years devastation Mr Francis Hamilton reported that he saw - -people as captives near Ava During the reign of Gambhir Singh in - -the male population has been reported to be eight thousand souls only In -it has been reported to be , -only However, -in the report of Political agency of the year - -the population has been recorded to be about -lakhs The formal census of -is said to have an element of irrelevancy but it has been quoted at lakhs The details of -has been destroyed during the war before it could be documented , -archived For my this article, -I am not very concerned of the population figure of -census (population was reported as ) - -===Forest land=== - -As one can understand, -the developments in the mainland India did not reach Manipur; one because it was an independent country, -second, -it was too landlocked for people from other lands to come , -interact It was well isolated, -very sparsely populated The legal implication of the term seems to be not thought of All the hills except in , -around the central plains were all abound in thick forests The hill lands were divided in to five lams, -each of which were under the charge of an official assisted by eight lambus The function of these officials has nothing to do with forestry Forestry became more streamlined after British conquest only The extraction was carried out without proper demarcation for sale to the British India, -at Cachar Market (Silchar Bazar) from the parts of Forests of Kalanaga Hills (exchanged with Eastern Surma valley portion of Manipur under a treaty), - -Forests in the Jiri Borak Drainange Forests These forests were mapped much later after British occupation The forests in the Kabaw Valley were not extracted commercially, -by the state, - -whatever extraction that has been done must have been under arrangement through British Burmese Government, -as there is no record of revenue accrued from that part - -The forests suffered a lot from Jhuming , -burning recklessly The descriptions of such fires are available in the Annual Administration Reports of the Manipur Agency, - -by Sir James Johnstone - -===Climate=== -The climate of the central plain portion of the valley was stated to be good, -but the temperature was stated to be higher than from the elevation, -feet, - -would have expected This excess in temperature may probably be owing to the reflection of heat from the sides of the lofty mountains surrounding The months of November, -December, -January, - -February, -hoar frosts are prevalent January is the coldest, - -May , -June are the hottest months in the year In May, -the hill streams begin to rise, - -they usually remain full until October Storms are very rare, - -those terrific peals of thunder, - -brilliant flashes of lightning for which mountain countries are celebrated seldom occur The remaining eight months are more or less rainy Dew falls heavily, - -before the sun has set, -the grass is usually saturated -The wind blows chiefly from the South-West, - -whilst it does so, -the country retains its usual healthiness It was believed that an Easterly wind, -continued for any time, -brings with it sickness - -===Composition of Forests=== - -In his report, -Captain Pemberton recorded that there were thick forest, -dense , -impervious from summit to the base According to him, -I know no spot in India, -in which the product of forests are more varied , -magnificent Mr BC Allen also described the forests as … has lain across range after range of mountains, -covered with forests so dense that it is seldom that he can see as much as a quarter of a mile before him In fact, -there are nine ranges of hills between Imphal , -Cachar The eastern face of the hill, -Laimatol (now a Reserved Forests) was covered with short grasses, -Imom , -Tumnou probably There is also a small chapter on forests , -vegetation in the report of R Brown published in the Imperial Gazetteer in - -It has been observed that the composition of the forests have never been studied , -plants identified Timber trees are plentiful, -but those only near the Cachar Frontier have any commercial value, -there Jarool (Lagerstroemia flosreginae, -Nagesur (Mesua ferrea), -Cham (Artocarpus chaplasa), -Wang (Gmelina arborea), -Toon (Cedrella toona), -India Rubber (Ficus elastica) are found Besides these, -in the mountains are found oaks (Quercus species, -Q serrata, -Q dealbata, -Q semiserrata , -Castanopsis hystrix), -Indian fir (Polyalthia longifolia), - -Indian Ash (Lannea grandis) Alder (Alnus nepalensis), -walnut (Juglans regia), -teak (Tectona grandis), -Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata) , -khangra (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) of which the last affords a black varnish different from the one before-mentioned The presence of Teak (Tectona grandis) as common species on the hills overlooking Kubo valley has been reported There are also reports of occurrence of wild tea plants (Thea chinensis) in the hill ranges of Heirok , -occurrence of Rhododendrons (Rhododendron arboreum) in the hills in the east Presence of willow (Salix tetrasperma) has been noticed in the plain area , -northern parts of the state There is also mention about Uningthou Dug out boats from Koubru Forests, -Cham Timber from Laimaton Forests There were many other species which were much used in house-building, - -are very durable - -==III== -By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh - -[http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--iii/ TheSangaiExpress] - - - -'''Revenue ''' The money revenue was very small,because the Raja being supplied by his people with everything that a Manipuri could want, -the being without money revenue was not a cause of much anxiety So currency money was sparingly used But then the transition had to happen, -with more intercourse with particularly Myanmar , -Cachar, -there had to be medium of transactions, -which earlier not cared for has become very important So the importance of money in currency form becomes very important - -The money revenue was very small The currency mentioned is all in rupee The major item coming was from annual compensation paid by British Government to Manipur for Kabo Valley It was Rs per annum The remainder consists of tribute in sale from the sale of Loees, -rent of fisheries, -transit duties, - -export , -import duties The total money revenue may be estimated at from twelve to fifteen thousand Rupees Even with the great disadvantage of an expensive land carriage, -the Valley of Manipur is very favorably situated for commercial purposes, -but the system of Government is opposed to the development of commerce; , -the insecurity of traders in the Burmese territory is so great There is no record of any transaction of timber or forest produce, -though in the later part, -there was sale of tea seed, -ivory, -rubber , -agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Syn agallocha)to traders in Cachar -During this period, -the Dimapur Manipur Cart Road has not yet opened The DMC Road became operative a little later in late -s after the British took over the country The trade with Assam flourished after that (at one point of time, - -carts were registered) -Forest Personnels -There is no mention of any employment in forestry except during King Bhagyachandra titled Urungpurel He controlled forests , -in addition all the brine wells Dr Brown mentioned in his account that all the brine wells belong to the King Later, -as described by TC Hodson, -the Urungba Loishang was charged with the duty of providing wood, -bamboo, -creepers , -such materials The Boldeb Seina are overseers of the supply of firewood , -Meitansang provides fuel In fact, -the King’s Court does not mention much about forests, -but more mention has been made about the hills as in those days hills were synonymous with forests This is evident from the survey records of Langol Hills , -Heingang Hills in - - -; this part I shall deal with when I take up forestry during British period The detail field level functionaries are not mentioned in pre British period, -but during British period, -these functionaries are encountered , -more fully described -Places, -history +AwdCi8 <a href="http://ntvwywvjoacs.com/">ntvwywvjoacs</a>, [url=http://chdejrolkisp.com/]chdejrolkisp[/url], [link=http://jezjadkhgyoz.com/]jezjadkhgyoz[/link], http://jggsnemtjtyn.com/ = During British Rule (1891-1947)= ''' Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947)'''
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Lines added in edit `(added_lines)`	AwdCi8 <a href="http://ntvwywvjoacs.com/">ntvwywvjoacs</a>, [url=http://chdejrolkisp.com/]chdejrolkisp[/url], [link=http://jezjadkhgyoz.com/]jezjadkhgyoz[/link], http://jggsnemtjtyn.com/
Lines removed in edit `(removed_lines)`	=In the Pre-British Period= ''' Forests of Manipur during Pre-British Period (-) ''' ==1== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period-/ TheSangaiExpress] Aug-Sept Our understanding of the past tradition, conventions, decisions , agreements , other historical facts are our guiding factors in taking the present decisions They also shape our thinkings to a great extent This is the reason for this attempt of mine to study the condition of forests of Manipur during the Pre-British Period During the period prior to British Rule, the population of Manipur was so less , forests so thick that any form of forestry was not thought of With no systematic modern education , very less contact with outside world except the hostile engagement with Burmese, not much exchange of knowledge took place The old literature which had some bearing on forestry such as Uyanlon (on art of felling trees), Heejing Heerao (on art of making boats), Urol (on description of trees), Leirol (on description of flowers) have not been documented in to common language which people can understand or scientifically interpreted so that it is universally understood These are parts of archaic literature , considered to be a part of the Puyas or scriptures They do not fall in to the period of which I am going to describe, so no reference is made to these literatures It is fortunate that we have the Royal Chronicles, the Chietharol Kumbaba , accounts of other writers of this period such as Captain RB Pemberton, Colonel William McCulloch, Dr Robert Brown, Mr TC Hudson, Mr Alexander McKenzie, Mr EW Dun, BC Allen, Sir James Johnstone etc The reports of Capt Pemberton, Col McCulloch , Dr Brown are important as they are relevant to the period of this article Mr Mckenzie’s report () is also quite helpful as it has summarized all these reports , corroborated with official correspondences he received in his office at Calcutta I consulted some of the works of famous historians of Manipur like Dr L Chandramani Singh , Prof Gangmumei Kamei Prof Gangmumei had a paragraph on forests in his book, History of Manipur (Vol ) Dr L Chandramani Singh’s account on the genesis of boundary of Manipur , its extent was also a useful reference I heartily acknowledge all the materials I have availed out of these great works I have also collected some materials from the works of Shri RK Somorjit Sana on the Chronicles of Manipur Monarchs from to It was a country of eight thousand square miles plus with a sparse population, could be remnant of a great civilization only But one fact that everybody shall agree is the wonderful social system that existed in those days It is most fascinating aspect of Manipuri society Perhaps, we may need to do more documentation on all those aspects of this beautiful land For this write up, I am not blending it with modern findings about fauna , flora, Geology, climate etc, of which we have fairly good data now I would prefer to describe them in the works of that period in their own words, limit my presentation to what the earlier writers have found in their accounts, because we need to understand the understanding of the people of that period of time about the forestry , their dependence on forests Let me also confess that not much of findings could be made, but that little I could find are of great interests, at least academically, I hope, those who are in the fraternity shall share same feelings ===The Period=== The Pre British Period can be studied in two parts, the periods from to but the period covered in this article is for the later The first period is from since the British established some relationship at the time of Warren Hastings by doing a treaty (By Governor Verelest of Bengal Presidency) with Maharaj Bhagyachandra (Jai Singh) till the seven years devastation in But not much was made out of the treaty as during the currency of the treaty, the seven years devastation took place Going back beyond this period () shall not yield much to the cause of this article Prior to seven years devastation, there had been several encounters with Myanmar (Burmese), but Marjit Singh managed to be on the throne with Burmese help by surrendering most of the rights Such right included forest right of Kubo Valley But when he was building the Palace, he felled teak trees in Kubo Valley , brought the timber, for construction of his palace, the Burmese were infuriated This could be or was one of the reason for invasion in addition to his act of insubordination The seven years devastation ended in with Gambhir Singh with the assistance of British drove away the Burmese , started his reign The main part of this study of this period, is from (the reign of Gambhir Singh) to in (Anglo Manipur war) During his time also, there were a number of treaties with British , the territory of the country was defined, in the North with British Territory of Assam, in the west with Cachar District, in the south with Lushai Territory , in the east with Burma (Myanmar) In the mainland India by this time, much development has taken place being post mutiny period The British has taken a number of landmark steps toward governance During this period, the CrPC , IPC were passed ( , ) The Imperial Forest Department of the British India was set up in appointed Mr D Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests , introduced scientific Forestry The first Indian Forest Act was passed in amended in to be instrument of scientific management This being the period of industrial development in Europe , colonial expansion, huge quantity of raw materials were required , all the scientific principles for sustained yield were introduced But these developments did not have much inspect in forestry scenario of the state ===The Golden Age=== The period of - can be regarded as golden age of Manipur History as during this period, the Maharaja drove Burmese out from Manipur beyond Ningthee River (Chindwin), established the kingdom once again , made Ningthee as the boundary of the country With the help of British, the country had its own army comprising of infantry with guns who are trained , drilled properly In addition, there were cavalry of men which could go up to men , artillery of another men This was quite a formidable force for the Burmese , other unorganized uprisings The Burmese no longer troubled the people of Manipur There were a lot of activities for consolidation of the territory Some beginnings were also made for Jarip (but stopped later) The relation with British was reasonably good for the entire period except on two occasions, one when the British Drawn Map leaving out a number of villages along borders with Assam (Naga Hills) were not accepted secondly when the request from British for a plot of land for construction of a Dak Bungalow at Kohima was not agreed by the King Of course, Anglo Manipur war in was a turning point not only in the history of Manipur but for forestry in Manipur too There were a lot of possibilities of having a different course of history , geography of Manipur had this war not taken place Contrary to this period, the previous sixty years were full of turmoil, feud amongst the princes , frequent invasion by Burmese There was one treaty with British in but the same was not given effect by both parties The attempts of Mr Verelst to extend military cooperation with Manipur Kings to contain Burmese could not materialize According to McKenzie, there is nothing worth mentioning during this period This period was marred with feuds among the princes for the throne frequent subjugation by the Burmese ==II== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--ii/ TheSangaiExpress] ===Incumbency=== The table shows the period of reign of different kings , the corresponding Political Agents Sl Name of Kings Period of reign Maharaja Gambhir Singh Maharaja Nar Singh - Maharaja Debendra Singh ( mnths) Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh Maharaja Surchandra Singh Maharaja Kulachandra Singh Sir James Johnstonn Major Trotter Mr Grimwood Sl Name of Political Agents Period of Service Captain Gordon Major Mc Culloch Dr Dillon Major W McCulloch Dr R Brown, FRCSE GH Damant ===Demography=== The massacre of men , flight of people that took place during the seven years devastation period, feud among the princes prior to this period has taken heavy toll on the population A huge number of people were also taken away by the Burmese during their invasions in mid eighteenth century , during seven years devastation Mr Francis Hamilton reported that he saw people as captives near Ava During the reign of Gambhir Singh in the male population has been reported to be eight thousand souls only In it has been reported to be , only However, in the report of Political agency of the year the population has been recorded to be about lakhs The formal census of is said to have an element of irrelevancy but it has been quoted at lakhs The details of has been destroyed during the war before it could be documented , archived For my this article, I am not very concerned of the population figure of census (population was reported as ) ===Forest land=== As one can understand, the developments in the mainland India did not reach Manipur; one because it was an independent country, second, it was too landlocked for people from other lands to come , interact It was well isolated, very sparsely populated The legal implication of the term seems to be not thought of All the hills except in , around the central plains were all abound in thick forests The hill lands were divided in to five lams, each of which were under the charge of an official assisted by eight lambus The function of these officials has nothing to do with forestry Forestry became more streamlined after British conquest only The extraction was carried out without proper demarcation for sale to the British India, at Cachar Market (Silchar Bazar) from the parts of Forests of Kalanaga Hills (exchanged with Eastern Surma valley portion of Manipur under a treaty), Forests in the Jiri Borak Drainange Forests These forests were mapped much later after British occupation The forests in the Kabaw Valley were not extracted commercially, by the state, whatever extraction that has been done must have been under arrangement through British Burmese Government, as there is no record of revenue accrued from that part The forests suffered a lot from Jhuming , burning recklessly The descriptions of such fires are available in the Annual Administration Reports of the Manipur Agency, by Sir James Johnstone ===Climate=== The climate of the central plain portion of the valley was stated to be good, but the temperature was stated to be higher than from the elevation, feet, would have expected This excess in temperature may probably be owing to the reflection of heat from the sides of the lofty mountains surrounding The months of November, December, January, February, hoar frosts are prevalent January is the coldest, May , June are the hottest months in the year In May, the hill streams begin to rise, they usually remain full until October Storms are very rare, those terrific peals of thunder, brilliant flashes of lightning for which mountain countries are celebrated seldom occur The remaining eight months are more or less rainy Dew falls heavily, before the sun has set, the grass is usually saturated The wind blows chiefly from the South-West, whilst it does so, the country retains its usual healthiness It was believed that an Easterly wind, continued for any time, brings with it sickness ===Composition of Forests=== In his report, Captain Pemberton recorded that there were thick forest, dense , impervious from summit to the base According to him, I know no spot in India, in which the product of forests are more varied , magnificent Mr BC Allen also described the forests as … has lain across range after range of mountains, covered with forests so dense that it is seldom that he can see as much as a quarter of a mile before him In fact, there are nine ranges of hills between Imphal , Cachar The eastern face of the hill, Laimatol (now a Reserved Forests) was covered with short grasses, Imom , Tumnou probably There is also a small chapter on forests , vegetation in the report of R Brown published in the Imperial Gazetteer in It has been observed that the composition of the forests have never been studied , plants identified Timber trees are plentiful, but those only near the Cachar Frontier have any commercial value, there Jarool (Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Nagesur (Mesua ferrea), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasa), Wang (Gmelina arborea), Toon (Cedrella toona), India Rubber (Ficus elastica) are found Besides these, in the mountains are found oaks (Quercus species, Q serrata, Q dealbata, Q semiserrata , Castanopsis hystrix), Indian fir (Polyalthia longifolia), Indian Ash (Lannea grandis) Alder (Alnus nepalensis), walnut (Juglans regia), teak (Tectona grandis), Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata) , khangra (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) of which the last affords a black varnish different from the one before-mentioned The presence of Teak (Tectona grandis) as common species on the hills overlooking Kubo valley has been reported There are also reports of occurrence of wild tea plants (Thea chinensis) in the hill ranges of Heirok , occurrence of Rhododendrons (Rhododendron arboreum) in the hills in the east Presence of willow (Salix tetrasperma) has been noticed in the plain area , northern parts of the state There is also mention about Uningthou Dug out boats from Koubru Forests, Cham Timber from Laimaton Forests There were many other species which were much used in house-building, are very durable ==III== By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--iii/ TheSangaiExpress] '''Revenue ''' The money revenue was very small,because the Raja being supplied by his people with everything that a Manipuri could want, the being without money revenue was not a cause of much anxiety So currency money was sparingly used But then the transition had to happen, with more intercourse with particularly Myanmar , Cachar, there had to be medium of transactions, which earlier not cared for has become very important So the importance of money in currency form becomes very important The money revenue was very small The currency mentioned is all in rupee The major item coming was from annual compensation paid by British Government to Manipur for Kabo Valley It was Rs per annum The remainder consists of tribute in sale from the sale of Loees, rent of fisheries, transit duties, export , import duties The total money revenue may be estimated at from twelve to fifteen thousand Rupees Even with the great disadvantage of an expensive land carriage, the Valley of Manipur is very favorably situated for commercial purposes, but the system of Government is opposed to the development of commerce; , the insecurity of traders in the Burmese territory is so great There is no record of any transaction of timber or forest produce, though in the later part, there was sale of tea seed, ivory, rubber , agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Syn agallocha)to traders in Cachar During this period, the Dimapur Manipur Cart Road has not yet opened The DMC Road became operative a little later in late s after the British took over the country The trade with Assam flourished after that (at one point of time, carts were registered) Forest Personnels There is no mention of any employment in forestry except during King Bhagyachandra titled Urungpurel He controlled forests , in addition all the brine wells Dr Brown mentioned in his account that all the brine wells belong to the King Later, as described by TC Hodson, the Urungba Loishang was charged with the duty of providing wood, bamboo, creepers , such materials The Boldeb Seina are overseers of the supply of firewood , Meitansang provides fuel In fact, the King’s Court does not mention much about forests, but more mention has been made about the hills as in those days hills were synonymous with forests This is evident from the survey records of Langol Hills , Heingang Hills in ; this part I shall deal with when I take up forestry during British period The detail field level functionaries are not mentioned in pre British period, but during British period, these functionaries are encountered , more fully described Places, history
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision `(new_html)`	<table class="wikitable"> <tr> <td colspan="0"><div style="font-size:100%"> <p>This is a collection of articles archived for the excellence of their content.<br />You can help by converting these articles into an encyclopaedia-style entry,<br />deleting portions of the kind nor mally not used in encyclopaedia entries.<br />Please also fill in missing details; put categories, headings and sub-headings;<br />and combine this with other articles on exactly the same subject.<br /> </p><p>Readers will be able to edit existing articles and post new articles directly <br /> on their online archival encyclopædia only after its formal launch. </p> See <a href="/ind/index.php/Examples" title="Examples">examples</a> and a tutorial.</div> </td></tr></table> <table id="toc" class="toc"><tr><td><div id="toctitle"><h2>Contents</h2></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Manipur:_Forests"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Manipur: Forests</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#During_British_Rule_.281891-1947.29"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">During British Rule (1891-1947)</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#1"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">1</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">2</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#3"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">3</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#4"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">4</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#5"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">5</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#6"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">6</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#7"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">7</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#8"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">8</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </td></tr></table> <h1><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Manipur: Forests">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Manipur:_Forests">Manipur: Forests</span></h1> <p>AwdCi8 <a href="<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ntvwywvjoacs.com/">http://ntvwywvjoacs.com/</a>">ntvwywvjoacs</a>, [url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://chdejrolkisp.com/">http://chdejrolkisp.com/</a>]chdejrolkisp[/url], [link=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://jezjadkhgyoz.com/">http://jezjadkhgyoz.com/</a>]jezjadkhgyoz[/link], <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://jggsnemtjtyn.com/">http://jggsnemtjtyn.com/</a> </p> <h1><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: During British Rule (1891-1947)">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="During_British_Rule_.281891-1947.29"> During British Rule (1891-1947)</span></h1> <p><b> Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947)</b> </p><p>By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="1">1</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31882-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>Introduction: Sometime back, I brought to the readers an article on the forests of Manipur in the pre colonial period of 1826-1891 (Maharaja Gambhir Singh’s reign to Anglo Manipur War). This article is for the period after Anglo Manipur War till independence of the state in 1947. This period has more concrete documentations and records as available to a large extent. The direction of the administration could be seen from these documents. The systematic documentation of decisions taken is available in the form of Darbar Resolutions, Royal Parwanas, Administration Reports written by the Political Agents, Manipur Gazettes and records of state accounts. In addition, the report of D.C. Kaith, A.J. Milroy, book written by J.C. Higgins were also crucial in making this article. The Cheitharol Kumbaba the royal chronicle was of great help. Regarding availability of plant and tree species I have depended largely on the report of Kaith and the Gazetteer by B.C. Allen. </p><p>Prior to 1891, the state had nine Political Agents and during the British rule, there were fifteen Political Agents, some of them doing second or third term. Among all, Lt. Colonel Maxwell. Colonel Shakespear, Mr. JC Higgins and Mr. W.A. Cosgrave were popular ones. List of Political Agents: Sl Name Length of service </p><p>1 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1892-1893 </p><p>2 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1893-1895 </p><p>3 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1895-1896 </p><p>4 Captain H.W.G. Cole, ICS (Offg) 1896-1898 </p><p>5 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1899-1899 </p><p>6 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1899-1902 </p><p>7 Major Albert E Woods, Indian Army (Offg) 1902-1904 </p><p>8 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1904-1905 </p><p>9 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1905-1908 </p><p>10 A.W. Davis, Esq., ICS, (Offg) 1908-1909 </p><p>11 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1909-1914 </p><p>12 Lt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, ICS, IIA 1914-1917 </p><p>13 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1917-1918 </p><p>14 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS, BA 1918-1920 </p><p>15 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1920-1922 </p><p>16 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1922-1922 </p><p>17 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1922-1924 </p><p>18 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1924-1928 </p><p>19 C.G. Crawford, Esq, ICS (Offg) 1928-1928 </p><p>20 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1928-1933 </p><p>21 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1933-1946 </p><p>22 G.P. Stewart, Esq, ICS 1946-1947 </p><p>The population of the princely state was very low (2.48 lakhs in 1901) and forest area was quite vast with plenty of forest produces were there for taking whenever required and hence, the need for systematic harvesting was not foreseen. Forest management came with the British in 1891 and prior to British Rule in the year 1891, there were no system of scientific management in the state. Records are available about the orders of the state Darbar giving allotment of forest land to private individuals in the hills in the early part of British Rule. There is also a mention of forest revenue being only Rs. 200/- in 1891 (Administration Report of Manipur, 1891). From the records, it also appeared that prior to 1891, there was some export of Forest Produce particularly timber from Manipur to India as can be seen from the records of correspondences made by the Political Agent and Superintendent of Manipur State with the Assam Government and the DFO Cachar on the matter of abolition of import duty levied by the British India from the produces imported from the foreign countries, Manipur government proposing abolition of the said duty. Beyond this, there is no mention of any management or administrative system followed. There was no value of the forest produces due to vastness of the forest and lack of market facilities and poor communication. There was no policy on forest and non forest land. </p><p>The extraction of forest produce commercially started only after 1889, when under an agreement with the Assam Government exploited these forests through the Cachar DFO on 75:25 revenue sharing basis with the later. During the early part of British Rule also, no separate Forest officer was appointed and forestry affairs were looked after by the President, Manipur State Darbar (PMSD popularly known as Chhoto Saheb) till 1931. During this period, collection of royalty from forest produces was introduced through toll stations and constitution of a few reserved forests. In the year 1931, the Forest Department of Manipur was set up with a separate Forest Member (equivalent to Forest Minister of present day). The details are being studied in this article. It is interesting to note that first regular staff appointed specifically for Forest Department was one peon and a clerk under the Darbar Member. </p><p>A. Incumbency: Important incumbents in the administration were HH the Maharaja, The Political Agents, the Presidents of State Darbars, the Darbar Members and the Forest Officers. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 2">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="2">2</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31911-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>List of Vice Presidents and Presidents: Sl. Name Post Length of service </p><p>1 HH, the Maharaja of Manipur President 1907-1916 </p><p>2 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS Vice-President 1907-1910 </p><p>3 C.H. Bell, Esq do 1910-till June </p><p>4 J.C. Higgins Esq do 1910-1916 </p><p>5 J.C. Higgins Esq, President 1916-1917 </p><p>6 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1917-1918 </p><p>7 V. Woods, Esq, CIE President 1918-till July </p><p>8 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1918-1919 </p><p>9 A. Gimson Esq, ICS President 1919-1921 </p><p>10 W. Shaw Esq, CIE President 1921-till June </p><p>11 C.S. Mullan Esq, MA ICS President 1921-1922 </p><p>12 G.C. Crawford Esq, ICS President 1926-till Mar </p><p>13 H. Weightman Esq, ICS President 1925-1926 </p><p>14 A. G. Mc Call Esq, ICS President 1927-1930 </p><p>15 Capt. C.W.L. Harvey, MC, IA President 1930-1933 </p><p>16 G.P. Stewart Esq, ICS, BA, LLB President 1933-1936 </p><p>17 CBC Paine Esq, ICS President 1936-1937 </p><p>18 ARH Mac Donald Esq, ICS President 1937-1939 </p><p>19 T.A. Sharpe Esq, MBE, ICS President 1939-1943 </p><p>20 E.F. Lydall Esq, MA, ICS President 1943-1945 </p><p>21 F.F. Pearson Esq, MBE, IPS President 1945-1947 </p><p>The other political and administrative personalities are not being discussed here. There were two Kings only since Maharaja Churachand Singh became major and became king in 1907 till British left in 1947, Maharaja Churachand Singh and Bodhchandra Singh, and hence they are also not discussed separately. For other posts, the names of the incumbent persons are given in the following paras: </p><p>1. The Political Agents: The Political Agent played an important role in the administration of the state before and after 1891. They were the direct agent of the colonial government and on all important matters his decision or decision taken by the Viceroy or the Governor General through him was final. Particularly during the minority of the maharaja (till 1907), the Political Agent was running the entire administration with the help of a few members of the council, but there was no formal Darbar. </p><p>The powers of the Political Agents were different from than that of the pre British Period. During pre British period, the Political Agents were more or less doing the function of observers or diplomatic functions like ambassadors. During British period, they became all powerful persons in the state administration. All decisions of the Darbar were conveyed to him and serious penalties and punishments were all confirmed by him. The trials of cases involving the Europeans were also done by him and the Darbar did not have that power. Mr. G.P. Stewart was the last Political Agent and he oversaw the transition from colonial rule to the independence. After the British occupation was over, the title of the Political Agent was changed to Dominion Agent (DA) and that continued for sometime but by then, the role of the DA could not be seen much in the Government transactions. The last of the official correspondence with the DA was seen in October, 1947(The Manipur State Gazette, 1947). </p><p>2. The PMSDs (Presidents, Manipur State Darbar): In the beginning, H.H. the Raja of Manipur was the President of the Darbar till 1916 and from 1916, an Europian Officer was made the President of the State Darbar. In 1919 after the Kuki Rebellion, a new Rules of business was made for the Darbar. There were 18 Presidents of the Darbar including H.H. the Raja of Manipur. Other popular PMSD s were Mr. Cosgrave, Mr. JC Higgins, Mr. G.P. Stewart and Capt. CWL Harvey. The Darbar’s main role was to assist the King in administration. However, in the proceedings of the Darbar, the PMSD had a great say and influence; a few decisions taken at the behest of the PMSD could even go against the general feeling of the members. Mr. F.F. Pearson was the last PMSD and in later part of the colonial rule, he was designated as the Chief Minister of Manipur State. During this period many important decisions were taken, which in fact was not called for a transitory Government and they had far reaching impact to the state’s governance. He handed over the charge of Chief Minister to Shri MK PB Singh on independence. </p><p>3. The Darbar Members: The Darbar used to have six members and a President. Prominent Members were Rajkumar Dumbra Singh, Sougaijam Bhubon Singh, Rajkumar Bhaskar Singh, Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh, and Capt. M.K. Priyabarta Singh. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 3">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="3">3</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31972-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>List of Reserved Forests: </p><p>1. Chingkheiching Reserved Forests 16.06.1937 </p><p>2. Langol & Langol Extn Reserved Forests 02.11.1938 </p><p>3. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 </p><p>4. Khema Reserved Forests 27.02.1946 </p><p>5. Laiching Reserved Forests 07.05.1940 </p><p>6. Sambei Purum Reserved Forests 07.10.1936 </p><p>7. Langjingmanbi Reserved Forests 04.03.1935 </p><p>8. Khamellok-Gwaltabi Reserved Forests 16.09.1946 </p><p>9. Vangai, Tolbung, Kaimai Reserved Forests 29.05.1935 10. Laimaton Reserved Forests 06.03.1941 </p><p><br /> 11. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 </p><p>12. Jiri Makru Reserved Forests 06.01.1939 </p><p>13. Cheklaphai Reserved Forests 28.02.1945 </p><p>14. Yangenching Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 </p><p>15. Kangbung Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 </p><p>16. Longya Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 </p><p>17. Kangchup Reserved Forests 27.04.1940 </p><p>18. Jirimukh Reserved Forests 07.02.1940 </p><p>19. Kangchup Reserved Forests 15.05.1940 </p><p>20. Warok & Konung Reserves Dates not known </p><p>Regarding the Darbar Member in charge of Forests, there was no separate Member in charge of Forests and the subject was looked after the President till 1931, many a times the issues relating to forests were raised by the Judicial Member in the Darbar. </p><p>Shri J.C. Higgins, as Vice President first and later as the President of the State Darbar took a keen interest in the Forests and wild life of Manipur. He first obtained the service of Mr. Rowbotham in 1910 and later of Shri Milroy in 1913 to recommend methods of managing the forests of Manipur. Shri Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh was the first Forest Member and he was the Forest Member since establishment of the Department in 1931 till his promotion as a Judge in 1944 of the Chief Court. He was succeeded by Shri A. Ibotomcha Singh as Forest Member. In 1946-47, Shri W. Chaoba Singh was the Forest Member in the Manipur Darbar. </p><p>4. The Forest Officers: Inspite of the strong recommendations by Shri AJW Milroy and Shri JC. Higgins, the then Vice President, State Darbar, no Forest officer could be appointed for a long time inspite of the fact that Forests, next to land revenue, was the maximum revenue earner for the exchequer. </p><p>There were fund provision for the State Forest officer but these were diverted off and on for other purposes. Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. D.C. Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, Shri C Padmanabh, Shri V Reddi were the forest officers prior to Shri RK Bijoychandra Singh, the local officer who became the State Forest officer (Later on, the Chief Forest Officer). Mr. Rowbotham and Kaith were appointed on temporary basis for assessing the forests and preparing a plan for working. Shri Hari Singh was in Manipur for a little over a year and got appointment as DCF in Bombay (Later, He became the Inspector General of Forests in the Central Government.) Shri V. Reddi was on tour to Jiribam when there were heavy Japanese bombings in Imphal and he could not come back, then he left for home from there. Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh, who was trained ranger (DDR 1937-39) was given charge, later appointed as State Forest officer. He was the first trained local officer. </p><p>Note: Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh later became the Chief Forest Officer (CFO) of Manipur after the British period. He was the Head of Department for more than twentyfive years. B. Forest Protection : I. Forest Reservations done during British: The state used to keep a good chunk of land under reserved forests. The State Darbar was the highest administrative body and as state had control over the land, the reserved forests were created as per Darbar Resolutions. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 4">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="4">4</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32010-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>The forests reserved in these days were Tolbung Reserved Forests, Kaimai Reserved Forests, Leijangphai Protected Forests, Jiri-makru Protected Forests, North Barak-Laikot Protected Forests, Kailam Protected Forests and Langol RF, Heinagang RF, Khema Chingjin to Nongrenching RF. Shri A. MacDonald was the PMSD in the year 1939 and he personally took a keen interest in the protection of forest and regulating the management. Majority of the Reserved Forests of the state were constituted during his tenure as the PMSD. The Kangbung, Longya, Yangenching, Sugnu are the Reserved constituted during his period. In fact about 60% of the Reserved Forests of the state were reserved during British Rule. Note: The Darbar used to give permits for taking out produces from Warok Reserve in Bishnupur District but the author could not trace out the date of constitution/declaring the reserve. Same is for the Konung Reserve, but for Konung Reserve, major portion has been dereserved in much later after independence for const. Prior to setting up of a separate Forest Department in 1931, the fund earmarked for forest management were mostly unutilized. In late 1890s and early 1900, only expenditure for forest protection and management was mostly for two reserves near Imphal (Langol and Heinagnag). </p><p>II. The reserved forests were known as State Reserve or Forest Reserve during British Rule. The Indian Forest Act was not fully implemented during the British period inspite of passing in the State Darbar. These State Reserves or Forest Reserves are equivalent to Reserved Forests under Indian Forest Act in function and purpose and they are saved by the proviso under Sec. 4 of Part C State Laws Act, 1950. III. Declaring Tera (Simul) as State Tree: The Tera tree (Bombax ceiba) was declared as state tree as its fruit was quite important for the state. </p><p>D. Forest Revenue : 1. Revenue Collection: Prior to 1891, revenue from forests was in the form of selling of tea seeds, India Rubber, Ivory, Agarwood etc. But since the British occupied the state, hectic negotiations went on for years for export of timber to British India, but due to heavy imposition of duty, the same could not be done. Some minor items like tea seeds, ivory, agar wood etc. were exported and timber to some extent. But the actual export of timber started only after 1898-99, when under an agreement with the Assam Forest Department, the DFO Cachar was allowed to work the forests on 25:75 revenue sharing basis. This constituted major part of forest revenue. This arrangement continued for quite a long time, and with this came the idea of forest acts and rules as the Assam Forest Regulation is the oldest and well framed forest law. The other sources of revenue were sale of Monopoly right to hill villagers, auction of toll stations, grass mahals, Chalmugra Mahal etc. The revenue from forest contributed on an average about 20% to the state exchequer. </p><p>The internal revenue from forests contributed very little to the state revenue. The two small reserved forests near Imphal (Langol and Heingang) were maintained at an average expenditure of Rs. 500-600 for protection annually and the same was opened for collection of thatch grass, reed and dead wood for two-three months every year, but there is no record of any revenue in 1890s and early 1900s. Further, during 1897-98, the Administration Report recorded that the PWD uses 18000 cft of timber and 66000 cft of firewood but no royalty was paid. It was also noted that the state was the proprietor of forests. According to A. Porteus, the then Political Agent “Upwards of 18,000 cubic feet of pine wood, valued at Rs. 11,000, and 66000 cubic feet of firewood, for neither of which did the state as proprietor, received a single pice, were used during the year by the Public Works Department alone”. </p><p>1. Timber Species under trade: In the Gazetteer of Manipur published in 1905, Mr. B.C. Allen enumerated a few species of timber which were traded with British India. They are as follows: Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, tula, Bora, Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), and Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima). 3. Fixation of Royalty: Due to exporting major portion of timber from the state to Assam, where forest laws were in operation from very early days, the reasonable limit of royalty was known to the state authority since the early days. However, the sale was mostly through auction of fuel wood coupes, toll stations etc. Royalty was fixed from time to time by the Darbar as done in the Darbar Resolution No 10A of 1932 and others. The Darbar revised the rates of royalty vide Darbar Resolution No. 1 of 20.12.1933 for certain timbers and for that of bamboo. The rates of royalty were fixed once again under Darbar Resolution No. 8 of dated 6.9.1944. 2. Forest Revenue & Expenditure I. Sale of Mahals right from 1909. The firewood mahals were in operation in Langol and Heingang Hills. II. Export of Forest produces from Manipur to British India a. Rubber: Creation & Sale of Rubber b. Timber: Negotiation for exemption of cess of 4% from Jiri Borak Forests c. Forest Working through Cachar DFO on Revenue Sharing basis 75:25 </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 5">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="5">5</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32084-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>III. Revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests IV.Toll stations: setting up & putting into auction The Hill Office was created in the early 1930 and with this creation, certain forest areas were put to auction for collection of revenue, by creating mahals in the Assam Style, but there were certain difficulties in operating these mahals. The revenue collection was then through the toll stations opened near the foothills or just outside the town area of Imphal. Imphal toll stations were Sekmai, Sawombung, Kakching etc. These toll stations were mainly for collection of revenue from the forest produces brought to Imphal from the forests of the state other than the Jiri Barak Drainage Forests. </p><p>The working of Burma Border Forests was under consideration for quite some time since the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation applied in 1912-13. The actual income from this aspect came only in 1915-16 and initially the revenue realized from this source was higher than that of the revenue received from the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests. In the year 1915-16, the revenue from Jiri Borak Forests was Rs. 11, 750/- against the revenue of Rs. 16, 816/-, realized from the Burma Border Teak Forests. However, as observed by Shri D. C. Kaith, there was a declining trend as may be seen from Assam Forest Administration Reports: It may clear from the figures of the following five years: </p><p>1899-1900 Rs. 14,998/- </p><p>1900-1901 Rs. 32971/- </p><p>1904-1905 Rs. 44,606/- </p><p>1927-28 Rs. 57,878/- </p><p>1928-29 Rs. 40,807/- </p><p>1929-30 Rs. 22,549/- </p><p>1930-31 Rs. 20595/- </p><p>1931-32 Rs. 8646/- </p><p>But just after intervention of the state due to Shri Kaith’s report, there were a slow improvement in the revenue as may be seen from the records extracted from the Manipur Administration Reports. </p><p>1935-36 Rs 24,565/- </p><p>1936-37 Rs. 30,872/- </p><p>Initially, the export from Jiri Borak Drainage Forests constituted major portion of revenue of Manipur. Later, the revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests also became quite a major part of forest revenue. Earlier, during pre British Period, there was not much source of revenue such as land revenue and hill house tax, the Kabo valley remittance and forest revenue mostly wild elephant sales, tea seeds, agar, ivory etc. constituted major revenue. For the state, the land revenue and hill house tax became more organized with the constitution of sub divisions based at Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Ukhrul etc. during British rule and this item overtook forest revenue as main contributor to the exchequer. </p><p>E. Legal Powers: </p><p>The Darbar had the law making powers: The Darbar Resolutions has the power of law. As such the Darbar yielded tremendous powers. The King on attaining major in the year 1907 was installed as the King and he became the president of the Darbar. But, majority of the powers remained with the Vice president who was a European. In 1916, an Englishmen was made the president, and Maharaja remained head, but just short of being a titular head. The Darbar Resolutions, the serious ones like imprisonment over five years requires HH the Raja’s confirmation in general, but some of the resolutions were put in to practice even without the confirmation of the Raja. Again, most of the serious issues were referred to the Political Agent, who if he felt necessary, was referred to the Governor General. </p><p>Various other resolutions concerning Forests on regulation of Jhuming, extraction, hunting and game rules, fixing of royalty were passed by the Darbar. These resolutions were in fact, the backbone of forest management in the state and they had force of law. </p><p>3. Power of courts vested with the Darbar Member and Forest Officers The Darbar Member was vested with the powers of court to dispose of forest cases by acting as a court. The judgments were made appellable to the Appellate Court and to the Darbar. The passing of Indian Forest Act, 1927 for adoption in the year 1941 and 1945 did not change this arrangement . The Indian Forest Act was not much up to the likings of the Maharaja and did not get his accent. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 6">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="6">6</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32120-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>In fact, the the Darbar was so adapted to the earlier system of disposal of the cases and as such, the newly adopted Act was seldom quoted in the later proceedings of the Darbar or the other courts till 1950, only after the Act was formally adopted under Section 4 of Part C Laws Act, 1950. F. Scientific Management: </p><p>In fact, the first management plan of forests started in Travancore state in 1837 (by Munro) in simple prescription of quantum of felling in Teak forests. Dr. Brandis before he came to India, tried scientific management of forests in Pegu (Burma) in 1856. Later he became IGF in India and introduced scientific management in Indian Forests 1864, but due to its unique geographic location and topographic features, the scientific system of management prevalent in India in the early and mid nineteenth century with Sir Dr. D. Brandis did not reach Manipur. So, the management of history can be studied in two parts, the Pre-Kaith and Post Kaith period. </p><p>(i) Pre Kaith Period (1891-1932) Due to lack of trained staff and due to the conditions of communication and socio economy, forest management was not given scientific touch. The first forest officer involved in the management of forest of the state was D.C. Kith, an officer from Himachal Pradesh taken on deputation in the year 1932. Shri Kaith was appointed by the president, Manipur State Darbar, Shri CWL Harvey (Capt. Harvey) and His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur. His appointment was approved vide Darbar Resolution No 3 of 6.6.1932. There were some British Forest Officers prior to Mr. Kaith. They were Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. AJW. Milroy etc., but Kaith’s Report was the most elaborate one. 1. Milroy’s Report: Earlier, prior to British rule, there were posts of Urungpurel in the court of the Kings but after British occupation, there were no mention of the post and there was no specific staff or system of forest management though the income from forests was major source of revenue. </p><p>In 1910-11, Mr. Rowbotham reported on the forests of Manipur. Mr. AJW Milroy, a forest officer from Assam (who later became the Conservator of Forests) was assigned to work out a management plan. Initially, the plan of hiring him was submitted in 1913. But the Darbar considered that the plan was to expensive to implement and asked the Officiating Conservator of forests of Assam only for a plan for dividing forests in Borak Drainage Forests in to blocks for systematic extraction (DR No. 7 dated 4.6.13). Ultimately Shri Milroy was hired and submitted a report in 1914. His plan mostly contained the silvicultural aspects, regeneration and harvesting but the detail survey and inventorisation part was not given much importance. </p><p>The Darbar agreed that the report of Milroy submitted in February, 1914 would need and European Officer in place of An Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests. The Darbar also agreed for payment to such an officer for this purpose. As the luck would have it, war broke out and the attention of the Political Agent and other British Officers was diverted to war. Another reason was that sivicultural activities would have cost dearly beyond the estimation by the state. But, there was a provision kept in the budget under the Head-Forestry for a long time which could not be spent, probably a suitable officer could not be appointed. The appointment of any dedicated staff did not take place for a long time even after the reports of Rowbotham and Milroy and till 1931 when the first Darbar Member known as Forest Member was appointed. </p><p>2. Appointment of Forest Member: The year 1931 seem to be a special year for the Department. The post of Forest Member came in to existence in the year 1931. The Darbar Member assumed charge on 1st November, 1931 and thus the Department came in to existence. This date has been regarded as birthday of the Department. The moves that the new Darbar Member made can be seen from the Darbar Resolutions passed on the 7th November and 14th November, 1931. From the Darbar Resolution No. 7 dated 14.11.1931, it is quite evident that the activities were stepped up as first step, the forest management of Langol and Heingang Reserves were made more systematic by dividing in to blocks (mahals) for systematic harvesting. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 7">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="7">7</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32136-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>3. Kaith’s Report: He was given first assignment to write about Manipur Forests specially of Jiri barak Drainage Forests which at present covers western Forest Division, Jiribam Forest Division and a portion of Tengnoupal Forest Division. The extreme emphasis given in these parts of the forests was due to its proximity to the mainland India and availability of water transport facility for the produces. </p><p>Shri Kaith’s report was very comprehensive one and was taken as the foundation of forestry in Manipur. He recommended working of forests of Manipur based on four distinct units, the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, the Burma Border Forests, Forests overlooking the Imphal Valley and North and East Forests. Due to the heavy demand of forests produces from British India, the management suggested for Jiri Borak Drainage Forests was much more elaborate. Simultaneous with his survey works, the Darbar Resolution No 10A which is virtually the Forest Policy of the state was passed in 1032 and there were marked change in the concept of exploitation of forests. The four types of forests are envisaged in this policy are: </p><p>State Reserve – to be put under strict state protection Valley Village Reserve- for the villages situated in the valley but depending on the forests in the nearby hills for meeting their requirements, Hill Village Reserve- Known as ¼ miles reserve to be maintained around each recognized village, Open Reserve- open for commercial and domestic requirement with permit. </p><p>Besides, the Darbar also fixed rates of royalty realizable from the open reserves. Later on in subsequent years, the village chiefs were given the preference of buying back the mpnopoly right on payment of a very low payment of M. Fee as fixed by the Darbar. The importance of the Darbar Resolution No. 10A are as follows: </p><p>1. It was the first policy guideline for management of Forests in the state. 2. The state reserves was given top priority 3. Extraction was regulated and allowed on permit system 4. Realisation of royalty was introduced For regulating shifting cultivation and reducing its adverse impact on the forests of the state, the Darbar passed another resolution which says that for shifting cultivation, permission of the Manipur State Darbar or the Maharaja is required, but this could not be effectively implemented. </p><p>After Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, another product of Edinburgh became the State Forest Officer. He stayed for one year in Manipur and he was followed by Shri C. Padmanabh. Shri Padmanabh worked till 1940. Next was Shri K.V. Reddy who stayed upto 1942. During this period, Shri L.M. Singh was the Darbar Member in Charge of Forests and it was during this period that the Indian Forest Act, 1927 was moved for adoption in Manipur with a few modifications. The Indian Forest Act was first moved for adoption in the year 1941 and later passed by the Darbar for adoption with amendments and modifications in 1945, but the Maharaja did not give his consent. After Shri Reddy, local officers came, Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh was the first local forest officer. </p><p>(ii). Post Kaith Period (1933 – 1947): After Kaith’s Report was submitted in September, 1933, there were marked changes in the forest management of the state. Important landmark changes are: 1. Powers of Court given to Darbar Member 2. Block System for Selection System of Forestry 3. Introduction of exotics like Wattle, Gravillea, Taxodium, Mahogany etc. Other important recommendations of Mr. D.C. Kaith are as follows: 1. The State Forest Officer and Darbar Member were given the power to try Forest Offences. 2. Court of Appeal could hear appeals on forest offences 3. Recommended to follow Assam Style of working and Assam Forest Manual and Darbar take advice from Conservator of Assam on regular basis. 4. Resin tapping was identified as a source of revenue. 5. Called for more investment in forestry sector. 6. Timber blocks system was introduced for extraction of timber. 7. State should manage its own forests (the management of Jiri-Borak Drainage Forest was taken over in 1936) Classification of Products: The terms major and minor produces were introduced after the report of Kaith(1933). He termed timber as Major produce. The minor produces he defined are Grass, Firewood, orchids, pine wood splinters (pine torches), canes, tea seed, bee wax, deer horn etc. He proposed that the barks of Oaks, particularly Sahi Kuhi be used for tanning purposes. Actually, the major and minor forest produces have not been described even in the Indian Forest Act, 1927. </p><p>G. Creation of Mahals: Certain Mahals were in operation during the period. The important mahals were the the Tea Seed Mahals, Agar Mahals, Chalmugra Mahals, Grass Mahals etc. The Grass Mahals continued to provide a steady Revenue as the requirement for housing was quite high, as thatch roofing was common means of roofing. Export selling of tea seeds and Agar Mahals continued since the pre British period on piecemeal basis, but only in later period of British period these were constituted in to mahals. </p><p>Two Chalmugra mahals were created vide Darbar Resolution No. 12 of 8. 4.1936. The Seeds of Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) yield Chalmugra oil. The two mahals were one for the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests and other one for the rest of the state. These mahals were allowed to be leased out commencing from 1st April, 1936. The royalty was fixed at Rs. 1 per maund vide Darbar Resolution No. 8 dated 5.5.1936 on the recommendation of the Deputy Conservation of Forests. Regarding working of firewood, the coupe system was followed quite early in the Langol and Heingang Reserves. As for timber working, Shri Kaith recommended the division of forests into certain blocks for convenience in management. </p> <pre>Accordingly, the Jiri-Barak Drainage Forests and adjoining Forests were divided into 19 (nineteen) timber blocks for proper management and extraction of the Forests. These blocks are all based on the watershed concept, and considering the period in which these were done, could be regarded as an advance system. Secondly, as in those days, water transport was the only one available, the watersheds draining into a major rivers such as Irang, Barak, Makru, Jiri, Ijei, Leimatak, Tipai etc. were taken as basis for dividing in to different timber blocks. Even today also, water is the only means of transport from the timber blocks M-IV, M-V, MXIV, M-XV etc. These units are by and large taken as management units of forests of these parts. </pre> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 8">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="8">8</span></h2> <p>By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32167-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>H. Forest Composition: Watt (1888) divided the forests in to three vegetation zones, but the same has not been reflected in the writings of the authors of those times like B. C. Allen, Mc Kenzie and others. B.C. Allen (1905) gave a list of timbers that were much in demand in Surma Valley in early 1890s. These species have been covered in the listings done by Shri Kaith later. The Forest Type Classification of H.G. Champion (1935) was not much known to the forest administration of the princely state. According to Kaith, the forests was divided in to four types, the evergreen forests of Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, Imphal Valley Forests of Oak and Pine, North East Pine Forests and Burma Border Teak Forests. </p><p>(i) Composition in Jiri Borak Forests (Local/common names as in Jiri & Cachar): Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Tula (Tetrameles nudiflora), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, Bora (Trewia nudiflora), Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Mishi, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima), Koroi (A. procera), Siris (A. stipulata), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasha), Chatni(Alstonia scholaris), Patri Chawan (Alseodaphne petiolaris) and Bamboos like Dolu, Pecha, Muli, Kala Sundi etc. Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) was common fruit tree (Minor Forest Produce). (ii) Composition of Burma Border Forests: Khangra, Yangou, Toon, Larong ( Dillenia pentagyna), Laihidak, Jam, Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata), Engelhardtia, Teak, (iii) Composition of forests around Imphal valley: Siris, Pareng, Tera, Chingthrau, Panggong (Butea monosperma), Tairel, Nanap, Lamuk (Cordia myxa), Heigri, Jam, Chorphon, Heitroi (Flacourtia catafracta), Wang, Heibung, Ushoi, Shahi, Thangji, orchids etc. </p><p>I. Wildlife: During pre-British period, the wild life protection was given only some mentions, even the king had to pay some tribes for eliminate and kill dangerous animals like tigers. The Sangai, of course received royal protection. The country had its first game rules passed in 1916 under the stewardship of J.C. Higgins. Hunting of game animals was in existence since pre British period and this new rule sought to regulate hunting. It was later amended in 1931. J.C. Higgins wrote the book Game Birds and Animals of Manipur and he listed important birds and animals in his book in 1918. Regarding the birds, he has given an elaborate account dividing the book in to VI parts, but gave a brief account of animals confined in the last chapter. The birds were Geese, Ducks, Teals, Shoveller, Pochards, Snipes, Bustards, Plovers, Cranes, Terns, Coots, Jungle fowls, Burmese Peafowls, Partridges, Quails etc. Among the mammals, important ones are Elephant, rhinoceros, Bison, Mithun, Buffalo, Sabeng, Sambhar, Kharsa, Jungle Cat, Wild Dog, Jackal, Himalayan Black Bear, Malayan Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard etc. as cited by him. </p><p>I. Regeneration of Forests: </p><p>Till late stage of British rule, forest regeneration was not given any serious thought and no part of the money revenue was ploughed back to Forests though Kaith recommended 20% to be ploughed back. As a result the forests deteriorated quite seriously. Shri D.C. Kaith strongly cautioned the administration on this. Only after his report, there were remarkable changes in Forestry sector. Regeneration activities were taken up in the Langol RF, Heingang, RF, Kangchup RF, Jirimukh RF and many other RFs. Important species planted were Teak, Mahogany, Jarol, Pine etc. Side by side, introduction of exotics such as Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Grevillea, Jacaranda. Wattle etc. were also taken up. Remnants of those attempts of wattle were seen till a few years back in Tadubi and Ukhrul areas. Introduction of Wattle could be related to production of tannins which the PMSD and Political Agents thought could be used for tanning the hides of cattle to leather which could generate income. Sir James Johnstone tried orchards and vegetables in Kangchup areas. </p><p>Conclusion: There were active evolution in forest management during British rule and all the major pillars of forest management like Framing of Game Rules, Constitution of Reserved Forest, Framing of Forest policy and adoption of Indian Forest Act (with modifications for the state) were taken up during period. However, considering that much more progress were made during this period in the mainland India in the field of scientific management, much more could have been done, because, the impact of forest management did not reach major parts of the state’s hilly region. </p><p>The Darbar and King were not always happy with the European PAs and PMSDs. One or two examples of that can be seen in the Darbar Resolutions. A few of the decisions were against the general will of the members and king, but then it was colonial days, the fallout of that we are still experiencing. </p>
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Contents 1 Manipur: Forests 2 During British Rule (1891-1947) 2.1 1 2.2 2 2.3 3 2.4 4 2.5 5 2.6 6 2.7 7 2.8 8 [edit] Manipur: Forests AwdCi8 <a href="http://ntvwywvjoacs.com/">ntvwywvjoacs</a>, [url=http://chdejrolkisp.com/]chdejrolkisp[/url], [link=http://jezjadkhgyoz.com/]jezjadkhgyoz[/link], http://jggsnemtjtyn.com/ [edit] During British Rule (1891-1947) Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947) By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [edit] 1 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress Introduction: Sometime back, I brought to the readers an article on the forests of Manipur in the pre colonial period of 1826-1891 (Maharaja Gambhir Singh’s reign to Anglo Manipur War). This article is for the period after Anglo Manipur War till independence of the state in 1947. This period has more concrete documentations and records as available to a large extent. The direction of the administration could be seen from these documents. The systematic documentation of decisions taken is available in the form of Darbar Resolutions, Royal Parwanas, Administration Reports written by the Political Agents, Manipur Gazettes and records of state accounts. In addition, the report of D.C. Kaith, A.J. Milroy, book written by J.C. Higgins were also crucial in making this article. The Cheitharol Kumbaba the royal chronicle was of great help. Regarding availability of plant and tree species I have depended largely on the report of Kaith and the Gazetteer by B.C. Allen. Prior to 1891, the state had nine Political Agents and during the British rule, there were fifteen Political Agents, some of them doing second or third term. Among all, Lt. Colonel Maxwell. Colonel Shakespear, Mr. JC Higgins and Mr. W.A. Cosgrave were popular ones. List of Political Agents: Sl Name Length of service 1 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1892-1893 2 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1893-1895 3 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1895-1896 4 Captain H.W.G. Cole, ICS (Offg) 1896-1898 5 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1899-1899 6 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1899-1902 7 Major Albert E Woods, Indian Army (Offg) 1902-1904 8 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1904-1905 9 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1905-1908 10 A.W. Davis, Esq., ICS, (Offg) 1908-1909 11 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1909-1914 12 Lt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, ICS, IIA 1914-1917 13 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1917-1918 14 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS, BA 1918-1920 15 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1920-1922 16 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1922-1922 17 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1922-1924 18 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1924-1928 19 C.G. Crawford, Esq, ICS (Offg) 1928-1928 20 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1928-1933 21 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1933-1946 22 G.P. Stewart, Esq, ICS 1946-1947 The population of the princely state was very low (2.48 lakhs in 1901) and forest area was quite vast with plenty of forest produces were there for taking whenever required and hence, the need for systematic harvesting was not foreseen. Forest management came with the British in 1891 and prior to British Rule in the year 1891, there were no system of scientific management in the state. Records are available about the orders of the state Darbar giving allotment of forest land to private individuals in the hills in the early part of British Rule. There is also a mention of forest revenue being only Rs. 200/- in 1891 (Administration Report of Manipur, 1891). From the records, it also appeared that prior to 1891, there was some export of Forest Produce particularly timber from Manipur to India as can be seen from the records of correspondences made by the Political Agent and Superintendent of Manipur State with the Assam Government and the DFO Cachar on the matter of abolition of import duty levied by the British India from the produces imported from the foreign countries, Manipur government proposing abolition of the said duty. Beyond this, there is no mention of any management or administrative system followed. There was no value of the forest produces due to vastness of the forest and lack of market facilities and poor communication. There was no policy on forest and non forest land. The extraction of forest produce commercially started only after 1889, when under an agreement with the Assam Government exploited these forests through the Cachar DFO on 75:25 revenue sharing basis with the later. During the early part of British Rule also, no separate Forest officer was appointed and forestry affairs were looked after by the President, Manipur State Darbar (PMSD popularly known as Chhoto Saheb) till 1931. During this period, collection of royalty from forest produces was introduced through toll stations and constitution of a few reserved forests. In the year 1931, the Forest Department of Manipur was set up with a separate Forest Member (equivalent to Forest Minister of present day). The details are being studied in this article. It is interesting to note that first regular staff appointed specifically for Forest Department was one peon and a clerk under the Darbar Member. A. Incumbency: Important incumbents in the administration were HH the Maharaja, The Political Agents, the Presidents of State Darbars, the Darbar Members and the Forest Officers. [edit] 2 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress List of Vice Presidents and Presidents: Sl. Name Post Length of service 1 HH, the Maharaja of Manipur President 1907-1916 2 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS Vice-President 1907-1910 3 C.H. Bell, Esq do 1910-till June 4 J.C. Higgins Esq do 1910-1916 5 J.C. Higgins Esq, President 1916-1917 6 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1917-1918 7 V. Woods, Esq, CIE President 1918-till July 8 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1918-1919 9 A. Gimson Esq, ICS President 1919-1921 10 W. Shaw Esq, CIE President 1921-till June 11 C.S. Mullan Esq, MA ICS President 1921-1922 12 G.C. Crawford Esq, ICS President 1926-till Mar 13 H. Weightman Esq, ICS President 1925-1926 14 A. G. Mc Call Esq, ICS President 1927-1930 15 Capt. C.W.L. Harvey, MC, IA President 1930-1933 16 G.P. Stewart Esq, ICS, BA, LLB President 1933-1936 17 CBC Paine Esq, ICS President 1936-1937 18 ARH Mac Donald Esq, ICS President 1937-1939 19 T.A. Sharpe Esq, MBE, ICS President 1939-1943 20 E.F. Lydall Esq, MA, ICS President 1943-1945 21 F.F. Pearson Esq, MBE, IPS President 1945-1947 The other political and administrative personalities are not being discussed here. There were two Kings only since Maharaja Churachand Singh became major and became king in 1907 till British left in 1947, Maharaja Churachand Singh and Bodhchandra Singh, and hence they are also not discussed separately. For other posts, the names of the incumbent persons are given in the following paras: 1. The Political Agents: The Political Agent played an important role in the administration of the state before and after 1891. They were the direct agent of the colonial government and on all important matters his decision or decision taken by the Viceroy or the Governor General through him was final. Particularly during the minority of the maharaja (till 1907), the Political Agent was running the entire administration with the help of a few members of the council, but there was no formal Darbar. The powers of the Political Agents were different from than that of the pre British Period. During pre British period, the Political Agents were more or less doing the function of observers or diplomatic functions like ambassadors. During British period, they became all powerful persons in the state administration. All decisions of the Darbar were conveyed to him and serious penalties and punishments were all confirmed by him. The trials of cases involving the Europeans were also done by him and the Darbar did not have that power. Mr. G.P. Stewart was the last Political Agent and he oversaw the transition from colonial rule to the independence. After the British occupation was over, the title of the Political Agent was changed to Dominion Agent (DA) and that continued for sometime but by then, the role of the DA could not be seen much in the Government transactions. The last of the official correspondence with the DA was seen in October, 1947(The Manipur State Gazette, 1947). 2. The PMSDs (Presidents, Manipur State Darbar): In the beginning, H.H. the Raja of Manipur was the President of the Darbar till 1916 and from 1916, an Europian Officer was made the President of the State Darbar. In 1919 after the Kuki Rebellion, a new Rules of business was made for the Darbar. There were 18 Presidents of the Darbar including H.H. the Raja of Manipur. Other popular PMSD s were Mr. Cosgrave, Mr. JC Higgins, Mr. G.P. Stewart and Capt. CWL Harvey. The Darbar’s main role was to assist the King in administration. However, in the proceedings of the Darbar, the PMSD had a great say and influence; a few decisions taken at the behest of the PMSD could even go against the general feeling of the members. Mr. F.F. Pearson was the last PMSD and in later part of the colonial rule, he was designated as the Chief Minister of Manipur State. During this period many important decisions were taken, which in fact was not called for a transitory Government and they had far reaching impact to the state’s governance. He handed over the charge of Chief Minister to Shri MK PB Singh on independence. 3. The Darbar Members: The Darbar used to have six members and a President. Prominent Members were Rajkumar Dumbra Singh, Sougaijam Bhubon Singh, Rajkumar Bhaskar Singh, Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh, and Capt. M.K. Priyabarta Singh. [edit] 3 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress List of Reserved Forests: 1. Chingkheiching Reserved Forests 16.06.1937 2. Langol & Langol Extn Reserved Forests 02.11.1938 3. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 4. Khema Reserved Forests 27.02.1946 5. Laiching Reserved Forests 07.05.1940 6. Sambei Purum Reserved Forests 07.10.1936 7. Langjingmanbi Reserved Forests 04.03.1935 8. Khamellok-Gwaltabi Reserved Forests 16.09.1946 9. Vangai, Tolbung, Kaimai Reserved Forests 29.05.1935 10. Laimaton Reserved Forests 06.03.1941 11. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 12. Jiri Makru Reserved Forests 06.01.1939 13. Cheklaphai Reserved Forests 28.02.1945 14. Yangenching Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 15. Kangbung Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 16. Longya Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 17. Kangchup Reserved Forests 27.04.1940 18. Jirimukh Reserved Forests 07.02.1940 19. Kangchup Reserved Forests 15.05.1940 20. Warok & Konung Reserves Dates not known Regarding the Darbar Member in charge of Forests, there was no separate Member in charge of Forests and the subject was looked after the President till 1931, many a times the issues relating to forests were raised by the Judicial Member in the Darbar. Shri J.C. Higgins, as Vice President first and later as the President of the State Darbar took a keen interest in the Forests and wild life of Manipur. He first obtained the service of Mr. Rowbotham in 1910 and later of Shri Milroy in 1913 to recommend methods of managing the forests of Manipur. Shri Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh was the first Forest Member and he was the Forest Member since establishment of the Department in 1931 till his promotion as a Judge in 1944 of the Chief Court. He was succeeded by Shri A. Ibotomcha Singh as Forest Member. In 1946-47, Shri W. Chaoba Singh was the Forest Member in the Manipur Darbar. 4. The Forest Officers: Inspite of the strong recommendations by Shri AJW Milroy and Shri JC. Higgins, the then Vice President, State Darbar, no Forest officer could be appointed for a long time inspite of the fact that Forests, next to land revenue, was the maximum revenue earner for the exchequer. There were fund provision for the State Forest officer but these were diverted off and on for other purposes. Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. D.C. Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, Shri C Padmanabh, Shri V Reddi were the forest officers prior to Shri RK Bijoychandra Singh, the local officer who became the State Forest officer (Later on, the Chief Forest Officer). Mr. Rowbotham and Kaith were appointed on temporary basis for assessing the forests and preparing a plan for working. Shri Hari Singh was in Manipur for a little over a year and got appointment as DCF in Bombay (Later, He became the Inspector General of Forests in the Central Government.) Shri V. Reddi was on tour to Jiribam when there were heavy Japanese bombings in Imphal and he could not come back, then he left for home from there. Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh, who was trained ranger (DDR 1937-39) was given charge, later appointed as State Forest officer. He was the first trained local officer. Note: Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh later became the Chief Forest Officer (CFO) of Manipur after the British period. He was the Head of Department for more than twentyfive years. B. Forest Protection : I. Forest Reservations done during British: The state used to keep a good chunk of land under reserved forests. The State Darbar was the highest administrative body and as state had control over the land, the reserved forests were created as per Darbar Resolutions. [edit] 4 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress The forests reserved in these days were Tolbung Reserved Forests, Kaimai Reserved Forests, Leijangphai Protected Forests, Jiri-makru Protected Forests, North Barak-Laikot Protected Forests, Kailam Protected Forests and Langol RF, Heinagang RF, Khema Chingjin to Nongrenching RF. Shri A. MacDonald was the PMSD in the year 1939 and he personally took a keen interest in the protection of forest and regulating the management. Majority of the Reserved Forests of the state were constituted during his tenure as the PMSD. The Kangbung, Longya, Yangenching, Sugnu are the Reserved constituted during his period. In fact about 60% of the Reserved Forests of the state were reserved during British Rule. Note: The Darbar used to give permits for taking out produces from Warok Reserve in Bishnupur District but the author could not trace out the date of constitution/declaring the reserve. Same is for the Konung Reserve, but for Konung Reserve, major portion has been dereserved in much later after independence for const. Prior to setting up of a separate Forest Department in 1931, the fund earmarked for forest management were mostly unutilized. In late 1890s and early 1900, only expenditure for forest protection and management was mostly for two reserves near Imphal (Langol and Heinagnag). II. The reserved forests were known as State Reserve or Forest Reserve during British Rule. The Indian Forest Act was not fully implemented during the British period inspite of passing in the State Darbar. These State Reserves or Forest Reserves are equivalent to Reserved Forests under Indian Forest Act in function and purpose and they are saved by the proviso under Sec. 4 of Part C State Laws Act, 1950. III. Declaring Tera (Simul) as State Tree: The Tera tree (Bombax ceiba) was declared as state tree as its fruit was quite important for the state. D. Forest Revenue : 1. Revenue Collection: Prior to 1891, revenue from forests was in the form of selling of tea seeds, India Rubber, Ivory, Agarwood etc. But since the British occupied the state, hectic negotiations went on for years for export of timber to British India, but due to heavy imposition of duty, the same could not be done. Some minor items like tea seeds, ivory, agar wood etc. were exported and timber to some extent. But the actual export of timber started only after 1898-99, when under an agreement with the Assam Forest Department, the DFO Cachar was allowed to work the forests on 25:75 revenue sharing basis. This constituted major part of forest revenue. This arrangement continued for quite a long time, and with this came the idea of forest acts and rules as the Assam Forest Regulation is the oldest and well framed forest law. The other sources of revenue were sale of Monopoly right to hill villagers, auction of toll stations, grass mahals, Chalmugra Mahal etc. The revenue from forest contributed on an average about 20% to the state exchequer. The internal revenue from forests contributed very little to the state revenue. The two small reserved forests near Imphal (Langol and Heingang) were maintained at an average expenditure of Rs. 500-600 for protection annually and the same was opened for collection of thatch grass, reed and dead wood for two-three months every year, but there is no record of any revenue in 1890s and early 1900s. Further, during 1897-98, the Administration Report recorded that the PWD uses 18000 cft of timber and 66000 cft of firewood but no royalty was paid. It was also noted that the state was the proprietor of forests. According to A. Porteus, the then Political Agent “Upwards of 18,000 cubic feet of pine wood, valued at Rs. 11,000, and 66000 cubic feet of firewood, for neither of which did the state as proprietor, received a single pice, were used during the year by the Public Works Department alone”. 1. Timber Species under trade: In the Gazetteer of Manipur published in 1905, Mr. B.C. Allen enumerated a few species of timber which were traded with British India. They are as follows: Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, tula, Bora, Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), and Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima). 3. Fixation of Royalty: Due to exporting major portion of timber from the state to Assam, where forest laws were in operation from very early days, the reasonable limit of royalty was known to the state authority since the early days. However, the sale was mostly through auction of fuel wood coupes, toll stations etc. Royalty was fixed from time to time by the Darbar as done in the Darbar Resolution No 10A of 1932 and others. The Darbar revised the rates of royalty vide Darbar Resolution No. 1 of 20.12.1933 for certain timbers and for that of bamboo. The rates of royalty were fixed once again under Darbar Resolution No. 8 of dated 6.9.1944. 2. Forest Revenue & Expenditure I. Sale of Mahals right from 1909. The firewood mahals were in operation in Langol and Heingang Hills. II. Export of Forest produces from Manipur to British India a. Rubber: Creation & Sale of Rubber b. Timber: Negotiation for exemption of cess of 4% from Jiri Borak Forests c. Forest Working through Cachar DFO on Revenue Sharing basis 75:25 [edit] 5 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress III. Revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests IV.Toll stations: setting up & putting into auction The Hill Office was created in the early 1930 and with this creation, certain forest areas were put to auction for collection of revenue, by creating mahals in the Assam Style, but there were certain difficulties in operating these mahals. The revenue collection was then through the toll stations opened near the foothills or just outside the town area of Imphal. Imphal toll stations were Sekmai, Sawombung, Kakching etc. These toll stations were mainly for collection of revenue from the forest produces brought to Imphal from the forests of the state other than the Jiri Barak Drainage Forests. The working of Burma Border Forests was under consideration for quite some time since the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation applied in 1912-13. The actual income from this aspect came only in 1915-16 and initially the revenue realized from this source was higher than that of the revenue received from the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests. In the year 1915-16, the revenue from Jiri Borak Forests was Rs. 11, 750/- against the revenue of Rs. 16, 816/-, realized from the Burma Border Teak Forests. However, as observed by Shri D. C. Kaith, there was a declining trend as may be seen from Assam Forest Administration Reports: It may clear from the figures of the following five years: 1899-1900 Rs. 14,998/- 1900-1901 Rs. 32971/- 1904-1905 Rs. 44,606/- 1927-28 Rs. 57,878/- 1928-29 Rs. 40,807/- 1929-30 Rs. 22,549/- 1930-31 Rs. 20595/- 1931-32 Rs. 8646/- But just after intervention of the state due to Shri Kaith’s report, there were a slow improvement in the revenue as may be seen from the records extracted from the Manipur Administration Reports. 1935-36 Rs 24,565/- 1936-37 Rs. 30,872/- Initially, the export from Jiri Borak Drainage Forests constituted major portion of revenue of Manipur. Later, the revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests also became quite a major part of forest revenue. Earlier, during pre British Period, there was not much source of revenue such as land revenue and hill house tax, the Kabo valley remittance and forest revenue mostly wild elephant sales, tea seeds, agar, ivory etc. constituted major revenue. For the state, the land revenue and hill house tax became more organized with the constitution of sub divisions based at Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Ukhrul etc. during British rule and this item overtook forest revenue as main contributor to the exchequer. E. Legal Powers: The Darbar had the law making powers: The Darbar Resolutions has the power of law. As such the Darbar yielded tremendous powers. The King on attaining major in the year 1907 was installed as the King and he became the president of the Darbar. But, majority of the powers remained with the Vice president who was a European. In 1916, an Englishmen was made the president, and Maharaja remained head, but just short of being a titular head. The Darbar Resolutions, the serious ones like imprisonment over five years requires HH the Raja’s confirmation in general, but some of the resolutions were put in to practice even without the confirmation of the Raja. Again, most of the serious issues were referred to the Political Agent, who if he felt necessary, was referred to the Governor General. Various other resolutions concerning Forests on regulation of Jhuming, extraction, hunting and game rules, fixing of royalty were passed by the Darbar. These resolutions were in fact, the backbone of forest management in the state and they had force of law. 3. Power of courts vested with the Darbar Member and Forest Officers The Darbar Member was vested with the powers of court to dispose of forest cases by acting as a court. The judgments were made appellable to the Appellate Court and to the Darbar. The passing of Indian Forest Act, 1927 for adoption in the year 1941 and 1945 did not change this arrangement . The Indian Forest Act was not much up to the likings of the Maharaja and did not get his accent. [edit] 6 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress In fact, the the Darbar was so adapted to the earlier system of disposal of the cases and as such, the newly adopted Act was seldom quoted in the later proceedings of the Darbar or the other courts till 1950, only after the Act was formally adopted under Section 4 of Part C Laws Act, 1950. F. Scientific Management: In fact, the first management plan of forests started in Travancore state in 1837 (by Munro) in simple prescription of quantum of felling in Teak forests. Dr. Brandis before he came to India, tried scientific management of forests in Pegu (Burma) in 1856. Later he became IGF in India and introduced scientific management in Indian Forests 1864, but due to its unique geographic location and topographic features, the scientific system of management prevalent in India in the early and mid nineteenth century with Sir Dr. D. Brandis did not reach Manipur. So, the management of history can be studied in two parts, the Pre-Kaith and Post Kaith period. (i) Pre Kaith Period (1891-1932) Due to lack of trained staff and due to the conditions of communication and socio economy, forest management was not given scientific touch. The first forest officer involved in the management of forest of the state was D.C. Kith, an officer from Himachal Pradesh taken on deputation in the year 1932. Shri Kaith was appointed by the president, Manipur State Darbar, Shri CWL Harvey (Capt. Harvey) and His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur. His appointment was approved vide Darbar Resolution No 3 of 6.6.1932. There were some British Forest Officers prior to Mr. Kaith. They were Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. AJW. Milroy etc., but Kaith’s Report was the most elaborate one. 1. Milroy’s Report: Earlier, prior to British rule, there were posts of Urungpurel in the court of the Kings but after British occupation, there were no mention of the post and there was no specific staff or system of forest management though the income from forests was major source of revenue. In 1910-11, Mr. Rowbotham reported on the forests of Manipur. Mr. AJW Milroy, a forest officer from Assam (who later became the Conservator of Forests) was assigned to work out a management plan. Initially, the plan of hiring him was submitted in 1913. But the Darbar considered that the plan was to expensive to implement and asked the Officiating Conservator of forests of Assam only for a plan for dividing forests in Borak Drainage Forests in to blocks for systematic extraction (DR No. 7 dated 4.6.13). Ultimately Shri Milroy was hired and submitted a report in 1914. His plan mostly contained the silvicultural aspects, regeneration and harvesting but the detail survey and inventorisation part was not given much importance. The Darbar agreed that the report of Milroy submitted in February, 1914 would need and European Officer in place of An Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests. The Darbar also agreed for payment to such an officer for this purpose. As the luck would have it, war broke out and the attention of the Political Agent and other British Officers was diverted to war. Another reason was that sivicultural activities would have cost dearly beyond the estimation by the state. But, there was a provision kept in the budget under the Head-Forestry for a long time which could not be spent, probably a suitable officer could not be appointed. The appointment of any dedicated staff did not take place for a long time even after the reports of Rowbotham and Milroy and till 1931 when the first Darbar Member known as Forest Member was appointed. 2. Appointment of Forest Member: The year 1931 seem to be a special year for the Department. The post of Forest Member came in to existence in the year 1931. The Darbar Member assumed charge on 1st November, 1931 and thus the Department came in to existence. This date has been regarded as birthday of the Department. The moves that the new Darbar Member made can be seen from the Darbar Resolutions passed on the 7th November and 14th November, 1931. From the Darbar Resolution No. 7 dated 14.11.1931, it is quite evident that the activities were stepped up as first step, the forest management of Langol and Heingang Reserves were made more systematic by dividing in to blocks (mahals) for systematic harvesting. [edit] 7 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress 3. Kaith’s Report: He was given first assignment to write about Manipur Forests specially of Jiri barak Drainage Forests which at present covers western Forest Division, Jiribam Forest Division and a portion of Tengnoupal Forest Division. The extreme emphasis given in these parts of the forests was due to its proximity to the mainland India and availability of water transport facility for the produces. Shri Kaith’s report was very comprehensive one and was taken as the foundation of forestry in Manipur. He recommended working of forests of Manipur based on four distinct units, the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, the Burma Border Forests, Forests overlooking the Imphal Valley and North and East Forests. Due to the heavy demand of forests produces from British India, the management suggested for Jiri Borak Drainage Forests was much more elaborate. Simultaneous with his survey works, the Darbar Resolution No 10A which is virtually the Forest Policy of the state was passed in 1032 and there were marked change in the concept of exploitation of forests. The four types of forests are envisaged in this policy are: State Reserve – to be put under strict state protection Valley Village Reserve- for the villages situated in the valley but depending on the forests in the nearby hills for meeting their requirements, Hill Village Reserve- Known as ¼ miles reserve to be maintained around each recognized village, Open Reserve- open for commercial and domestic requirement with permit. Besides, the Darbar also fixed rates of royalty realizable from the open reserves. Later on in subsequent years, the village chiefs were given the preference of buying back the mpnopoly right on payment of a very low payment of M. Fee as fixed by the Darbar. The importance of the Darbar Resolution No. 10A are as follows: 1. It was the first policy guideline for management of Forests in the state. 2. The state reserves was given top priority 3. Extraction was regulated and allowed on permit system 4. Realisation of royalty was introduced For regulating shifting cultivation and reducing its adverse impact on the forests of the state, the Darbar passed another resolution which says that for shifting cultivation, permission of the Manipur State Darbar or the Maharaja is required, but this could not be effectively implemented. After Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, another product of Edinburgh became the State Forest Officer. He stayed for one year in Manipur and he was followed by Shri C. Padmanabh. Shri Padmanabh worked till 1940. Next was Shri K.V. Reddy who stayed upto 1942. During this period, Shri L.M. Singh was the Darbar Member in Charge of Forests and it was during this period that the Indian Forest Act, 1927 was moved for adoption in Manipur with a few modifications. The Indian Forest Act was first moved for adoption in the year 1941 and later passed by the Darbar for adoption with amendments and modifications in 1945, but the Maharaja did not give his consent. After Shri Reddy, local officers came, Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh was the first local forest officer. (ii). Post Kaith Period (1933 – 1947): After Kaith’s Report was submitted in September, 1933, there were marked changes in the forest management of the state. Important landmark changes are: 1. Powers of Court given to Darbar Member 2. Block System for Selection System of Forestry 3. Introduction of exotics like Wattle, Gravillea, Taxodium, Mahogany etc. Other important recommendations of Mr. D.C. Kaith are as follows: 1. The State Forest Officer and Darbar Member were given the power to try Forest Offences. 2. Court of Appeal could hear appeals on forest offences 3. Recommended to follow Assam Style of working and Assam Forest Manual and Darbar take advice from Conservator of Assam on regular basis. 4. Resin tapping was identified as a source of revenue. 5. Called for more investment in forestry sector. 6. Timber blocks system was introduced for extraction of timber. 7. State should manage its own forests (the management of Jiri-Borak Drainage Forest was taken over in 1936) Classification of Products: The terms major and minor produces were introduced after the report of Kaith(1933). He termed timber as Major produce. The minor produces he defined are Grass, Firewood, orchids, pine wood splinters (pine torches), canes, tea seed, bee wax, deer horn etc. He proposed that the barks of Oaks, particularly Sahi Kuhi be used for tanning purposes. Actually, the major and minor forest produces have not been described even in the Indian Forest Act, 1927. G. Creation of Mahals: Certain Mahals were in operation during the period. The important mahals were the the Tea Seed Mahals, Agar Mahals, Chalmugra Mahals, Grass Mahals etc. The Grass Mahals continued to provide a steady Revenue as the requirement for housing was quite high, as thatch roofing was common means of roofing. Export selling of tea seeds and Agar Mahals continued since the pre British period on piecemeal basis, but only in later period of British period these were constituted in to mahals. Two Chalmugra mahals were created vide Darbar Resolution No. 12 of 8. 4.1936. The Seeds of Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) yield Chalmugra oil. The two mahals were one for the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests and other one for the rest of the state. These mahals were allowed to be leased out commencing from 1st April, 1936. The royalty was fixed at Rs. 1 per maund vide Darbar Resolution No. 8 dated 5.5.1936 on the recommendation of the Deputy Conservation of Forests. Regarding working of firewood, the coupe system was followed quite early in the Langol and Heingang Reserves. As for timber working, Shri Kaith recommended the division of forests into certain blocks for convenience in management. Accordingly, the Jiri-Barak Drainage Forests and adjoining Forests were divided into 19 (nineteen) timber blocks for proper management and extraction of the Forests. These blocks are all based on the watershed concept, and considering the period in which these were done, could be regarded as an advance system. Secondly, as in those days, water transport was the only one available, the watersheds draining into a major rivers such as Irang, Barak, Makru, Jiri, Ijei, Leimatak, Tipai etc. were taken as basis for dividing in to different timber blocks. Even today also, water is the only means of transport from the timber blocks M-IV, M-V, MXIV, M-XV etc. These units are by and large taken as management units of forests of these parts. [edit] 8 By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress H. Forest Composition: Watt (1888) divided the forests in to three vegetation zones, but the same has not been reflected in the writings of the authors of those times like B. C. Allen, Mc Kenzie and others. B.C. Allen (1905) gave a list of timbers that were much in demand in Surma Valley in early 1890s. These species have been covered in the listings done by Shri Kaith later. The Forest Type Classification of H.G. Champion (1935) was not much known to the forest administration of the princely state. According to Kaith, the forests was divided in to four types, the evergreen forests of Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, Imphal Valley Forests of Oak and Pine, North East Pine Forests and Burma Border Teak Forests. (i) Composition in Jiri Borak Forests (Local/common names as in Jiri & Cachar): Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Tula (Tetrameles nudiflora), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, Bora (Trewia nudiflora), Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Mishi, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima), Koroi (A. procera), Siris (A. stipulata), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasha), Chatni(Alstonia scholaris), Patri Chawan (Alseodaphne petiolaris) and Bamboos like Dolu, Pecha, Muli, Kala Sundi etc. Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) was common fruit tree (Minor Forest Produce). (ii) Composition of Burma Border Forests: Khangra, Yangou, Toon, Larong ( Dillenia pentagyna), Laihidak, Jam, Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata), Engelhardtia, Teak, (iii) Composition of forests around Imphal valley: Siris, Pareng, Tera, Chingthrau, Panggong (Butea monosperma), Tairel, Nanap, Lamuk (Cordia myxa), Heigri, Jam, Chorphon, Heitroi (Flacourtia catafracta), Wang, Heibung, Ushoi, Shahi, Thangji, orchids etc. I. Wildlife: During pre-British period, the wild life protection was given only some mentions, even the king had to pay some tribes for eliminate and kill dangerous animals like tigers. The Sangai, of course received royal protection. The country had its first game rules passed in 1916 under the stewardship of J.C. Higgins. Hunting of game animals was in existence since pre British period and this new rule sought to regulate hunting. It was later amended in 1931. J.C. Higgins wrote the book Game Birds and Animals of Manipur and he listed important birds and animals in his book in 1918. Regarding the birds, he has given an elaborate account dividing the book in to VI parts, but gave a brief account of animals confined in the last chapter. The birds were Geese, Ducks, Teals, Shoveller, Pochards, Snipes, Bustards, Plovers, Cranes, Terns, Coots, Jungle fowls, Burmese Peafowls, Partridges, Quails etc. Among the mammals, important ones are Elephant, rhinoceros, Bison, Mithun, Buffalo, Sabeng, Sambhar, Kharsa, Jungle Cat, Wild Dog, Jackal, Himalayan Black Bear, Malayan Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard etc. as cited by him. I. Regeneration of Forests: Till late stage of British rule, forest regeneration was not given any serious thought and no part of the money revenue was ploughed back to Forests though Kaith recommended 20% to be ploughed back. As a result the forests deteriorated quite seriously. Shri D.C. Kaith strongly cautioned the administration on this. Only after his report, there were remarkable changes in Forestry sector. Regeneration activities were taken up in the Langol RF, Heingang, RF, Kangchup RF, Jirimukh RF and many other RFs. Important species planted were Teak, Mahogany, Jarol, Pine etc. Side by side, introduction of exotics such as Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Grevillea, Jacaranda. Wattle etc. were also taken up. Remnants of those attempts of wattle were seen till a few years back in Tadubi and Ukhrul areas. Introduction of Wattle could be related to production of tannins which the PMSD and Political Agents thought could be used for tanning the hides of cattle to leather which could generate income. Sir James Johnstone tried orchards and vegetables in Kangchup areas. Conclusion: There were active evolution in forest management during British rule and all the major pillars of forest management like Framing of Game Rules, Constitution of Reserved Forest, Framing of Forest policy and adoption of Indian Forest Act (with modifications for the state) were taken up during period. However, considering that much more progress were made during this period in the mainland India in the field of scientific management, much more could have been done, because, the impact of forest management did not reach major parts of the state’s hilly region. The Darbar and King were not always happy with the European PAs and PMSDs. One or two examples of that can be seen in the Darbar Resolutions. A few of the decisions were against the general will of the members and king, but then it was colonial days, the fallout of that we are still experiencing.
`old_html`	<table class="wikitable"> <tr> <td colspan="0"><div style="font-size:100%"> <p>This is a collection of articles archived for the excellence of their content.<br />You can help by converting these articles into an encyclopaedia-style entry,<br />deleting portions of the kind nor mally not used in encyclopaedia entries.<br />Please also fill in missing details; put categories, headings and sub-headings;<br />and combine this with other articles on exactly the same subject.<br /> </p><p>Readers will be able to edit existing articles and post new articles directly <br /> on their online archival encyclopædia only after its formal launch. </p> See <a href="/ind/index.php/Examples" title="Examples">examples</a> and a tutorial.</div> </td></tr></table> <table id="toc" class="toc"><tr><td><div id="toctitle"><h2>Contents</h2></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Manipur:_Forests"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Manipur: Forests</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#In_the_Pre-British_Period"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">In the Pre-British Period</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#1"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">1</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#The_Period"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">The Period</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#The_Golden_Age"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">The Golden Age</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#II"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">II</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Incumbency"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Incumbency</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Demography"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Demography</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Forest_land"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Forest land</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Climate"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Climate</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Composition_of_Forests"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Composition of Forests</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#III"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">III</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#During_British_Rule_.281891-1947.29"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">During British Rule (1891-1947)</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#1_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">1</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">2</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#3"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">3</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#4"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">4</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#5"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">5</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#6"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">6</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#7"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">7</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#8"><span class="tocnumber">3.8</span> <span class="toctext">8</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </td></tr></table> <h1><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Manipur: Forests">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Manipur:_Forests">Manipur: Forests</span></h1> <h1><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In the Pre-British Period">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="In_the_Pre-British_Period">In the Pre-British Period</span></h1> <p><b> Forests of Manipur during Pre-British Period (-) </b> </p><p><br /> </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="1">1</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p>[http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period-/ TheSangaiExpress] Aug-Sept </p><p>Our understanding of the past tradition, conventions, decisions , </p><p>agreements , other historical facts are our guiding factors in taking the present decisions They also shape our thinkings to a great extent This is the reason for this attempt of mine to study the condition of forests of Manipur during the Pre-British Period During the period prior to British Rule, the population of Manipur was so less , forests so thick that any form of forestry was not thought of With no systematic modern education , very less contact with outside world except the hostile engagement with Burmese, not much exchange of knowledge took place The old literature which had some bearing on forestry such as Uyanlon (on art of felling trees), Heejing Heerao (on art of making boats), Urol (on description of trees), Leirol (on description of flowers) have not been documented in to common language which people can understand or scientifically interpreted so that it is universally understood These are parts of archaic literature , considered to be a part of the Puyas or scriptures They do not fall in to the period of which I am going to describe, so no reference is made to these literatures </p><p><br /> It is fortunate that we have the Royal Chronicles, the Chietharol Kumbaba , accounts of other writers of this period such as Captain RB Pemberton, Colonel William McCulloch, Dr Robert Brown, Mr TC Hudson, Mr Alexander McKenzie, Mr EW Dun, BC Allen, Sir James Johnstone etc The reports of Capt Pemberton, Col McCulloch , Dr Brown are important as they are relevant to the period of this article Mr Mckenzie’s report () is also quite helpful as it has summarized all these reports , </p><p>corroborated with official correspondences he received in his office at Calcutta I consulted some of the works of famous historians of Manipur like Dr L Chandramani Singh , Prof Gangmumei Kamei Prof Gangmumei had a paragraph on forests in his book, History of Manipur (Vol ) Dr L Chandramani Singh’s account on the genesis of boundary of Manipur , its extent was also a useful reference I heartily acknowledge all the materials I have availed out of these great works I have also collected some materials from the works of Shri RK Somorjit Sana on the Chronicles of Manipur Monarchs from to </p><p>It was a country of eight thousand square miles plus with a sparse population, could be remnant of a great civilization only But one fact that everybody shall agree is the wonderful social system that existed in those days It is most fascinating aspect of Manipuri society Perhaps, we may need to do more documentation on all those aspects of this beautiful land For this write up, I am not blending it with modern findings about fauna , flora, </p><p>Geology, climate etc, of which we have fairly good data now I would prefer to describe them in the works of that period in their own words, limit my presentation to what the earlier writers have found in their accounts, because we need to understand the understanding of the people of that period of time about the forestry , their dependence on forests Let me also confess that not much of findings could be made, but that little I could find are of great interests, at least academically, </p><p>I hope, those who are in the fraternity shall share same feelings </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Period">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="The_Period">The Period</span></h3> <p>The Pre British Period can be studied in two parts, the periods from to </p><p>but the period covered in this article is for the later The first period is from </p><p>since the British established some relationship at the time of Warren Hastings by doing a treaty (By Governor Verelest of Bengal Presidency) with Maharaj Bhagyachandra (Jai Singh) till the seven years devastation in But not much was made out of the treaty as during the currency of the treaty, the seven years devastation took place Going back beyond this period () shall not yield much to the cause of this article Prior to seven years devastation, there had been several encounters with Myanmar (Burmese), but Marjit Singh managed to be on the throne with Burmese help by surrendering most of the rights Such right included forest right of Kubo Valley But when he was building the Palace, he felled teak trees in Kubo Valley , brought the timber, for construction of his palace, the Burmese were infuriated This could be or was one of the reason for invasion in addition to his act of insubordination The seven years devastation ended in with Gambhir Singh with the assistance of British drove away the Burmese , started his reign The main part of this study of this period, is from (the reign of Gambhir Singh) to in (Anglo Manipur war) During his time also, there were a number of treaties with British , the territory of the country was defined, in the North with British Territory of Assam, in the west with Cachar District, in the south with Lushai Territory , in the east with Burma (Myanmar) In the mainland India by this time, much development has taken place being post mutiny period The British has taken a number of landmark steps toward governance During this period, the CrPC , IPC were passed ( , </p><p>) The Imperial Forest Department of the British India was set up in </p><p>appointed Mr D Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests , introduced scientific Forestry The first Indian Forest Act was passed in </p><p>amended in to be instrument of scientific management This being the period of industrial development in Europe , colonial expansion, huge quantity of raw materials were required , all the scientific principles for sustained yield were introduced But these developments did not have much inspect in forestry scenario of the state </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Golden Age">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="The_Golden_Age">The Golden Age</span></h3> <p>The period of - can be regarded as golden age of Manipur History as during this period, the Maharaja drove Burmese out from Manipur beyond Ningthee River (Chindwin), </p><p>established the kingdom once again , made Ningthee as the boundary of the country With the help of British, the country had its own army comprising of infantry with guns who are trained , drilled properly In addition, there were cavalry of men which could go up to men , artillery of another men This was quite a formidable force for the Burmese , other unorganized uprisings The Burmese no longer troubled the people of Manipur There were a lot of activities for consolidation of the territory Some beginnings were also made for Jarip (but stopped later) The relation with British was reasonably good for the entire period except on two occasions, one when the British Drawn Map leaving out a number of villages along borders with Assam (Naga Hills) were not accepted secondly when the request from British for a plot of land for construction of a Dak Bungalow at Kohima was not agreed by the King Of course, Anglo Manipur war in was a turning point not only in the history of Manipur but for forestry in Manipur too There were a lot of possibilities of having a different course of history , geography of Manipur had this war not taken place Contrary to this period, the previous sixty years were full of turmoil, feud amongst the princes , frequent invasion by Burmese There was one treaty with British in but the same was not given effect by both parties The attempts of Mr Verelst to extend military cooperation with Manipur Kings to contain Burmese could not materialize According to McKenzie, there is nothing worth mentioning during this period This period was marred with feuds among the princes for the throne </p><p>frequent subjugation by the Burmese </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: II">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="II">II</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p>[http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--ii/ TheSangaiExpress] </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Incumbency">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Incumbency">Incumbency</span></h3> <p>The table shows the period of reign of different kings , the corresponding Political Agents Sl Name of Kings Period of reign Maharaja Gambhir Singh </p><p>Maharaja Nar Singh - Maharaja Debendra Singh ( mnths) </p><p>Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh </p><p>Maharaja Surchandra Singh </p><p>Maharaja Kulachandra Singh </p><p>Sir James Johnstonn </p><p>Major Trotter </p><p>Mr Grimwood </p><p>Sl Name of Political Agents Period of Service Captain Gordon </p><p>Major Mc Culloch </p><p>Dr Dillon </p><p>Major W McCulloch </p><p>Dr R Brown, </p><p>FRCSE </p><p>GH Damant </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Demography">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Demography">Demography</span></h3> <p>The massacre of men , flight of people that took place during the seven years devastation period, feud among the princes prior to this period has taken heavy toll on the population A huge number of people were also taken away by the Burmese during their invasions in mid eighteenth century , during seven years devastation Mr Francis Hamilton reported that he saw </p><p>people as captives near Ava During the reign of Gambhir Singh in </p><p>the male population has been reported to be eight thousand souls only In it has been reported to be , only However, in the report of Political agency of the year </p><p>the population has been recorded to be about lakhs The formal census of is said to have an element of irrelevancy but it has been quoted at lakhs The details of has been destroyed during the war before it could be documented , archived For my this article, I am not very concerned of the population figure of census (population was reported as ) </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Forest land">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Forest_land">Forest land</span></h3> <p>As one can understand, the developments in the mainland India did not reach Manipur; one because it was an independent country, second, it was too landlocked for people from other lands to come , interact It was well isolated, very sparsely populated The legal implication of the term seems to be not thought of All the hills except in , around the central plains were all abound in thick forests The hill lands were divided in to five lams, each of which were under the charge of an official assisted by eight lambus The function of these officials has nothing to do with forestry Forestry became more streamlined after British conquest only The extraction was carried out without proper demarcation for sale to the British India, at Cachar Market (Silchar Bazar) from the parts of Forests of Kalanaga Hills (exchanged with Eastern Surma valley portion of Manipur under a treaty), </p><p>Forests in the Jiri Borak Drainange Forests These forests were mapped much later after British occupation The forests in the Kabaw Valley were not extracted commercially, by the state, </p><p>whatever extraction that has been done must have been under arrangement through British Burmese Government, as there is no record of revenue accrued from that part </p><p>The forests suffered a lot from Jhuming , burning recklessly The descriptions of such fires are available in the Annual Administration Reports of the Manipur Agency, </p><p>by Sir James Johnstone </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Climate">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Climate">Climate</span></h3> <p>The climate of the central plain portion of the valley was stated to be good, but the temperature was stated to be higher than from the elevation, feet, </p><p>would have expected This excess in temperature may probably be owing to the reflection of heat from the sides of the lofty mountains surrounding The months of November, December, January, </p><p>February, hoar frosts are prevalent January is the coldest, </p><p>May , June are the hottest months in the year In May, the hill streams begin to rise, </p><p>they usually remain full until October Storms are very rare, </p><p>those terrific peals of thunder, </p><p>brilliant flashes of lightning for which mountain countries are celebrated seldom occur The remaining eight months are more or less rainy Dew falls heavily, </p><p>before the sun has set, the grass is usually saturated The wind blows chiefly from the South-West, </p><p>whilst it does so, the country retains its usual healthiness It was believed that an Easterly wind, continued for any time, brings with it sickness </p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Composition of Forests">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Composition_of_Forests">Composition of Forests</span></h3> <p>In his report, Captain Pemberton recorded that there were thick forest, dense , impervious from summit to the base According to him, I know no spot in India, in which the product of forests are more varied , magnificent Mr BC Allen also described the forests as … has lain across range after range of mountains, covered with forests so dense that it is seldom that he can see as much as a quarter of a mile before him In fact, there are nine ranges of hills between Imphal , Cachar The eastern face of the hill, Laimatol (now a Reserved Forests) was covered with short grasses, Imom , Tumnou probably There is also a small chapter on forests , vegetation in the report of R Brown published in the Imperial Gazetteer in </p><p>It has been observed that the composition of the forests have never been studied , plants identified Timber trees are plentiful, but those only near the Cachar Frontier have any commercial value, there Jarool (Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Nagesur (Mesua ferrea), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasa), Wang (Gmelina arborea), Toon (Cedrella toona), India Rubber (Ficus elastica) are found Besides these, in the mountains are found oaks (Quercus species, Q serrata, Q dealbata, Q semiserrata , Castanopsis hystrix), Indian fir (Polyalthia longifolia), </p><p>Indian Ash (Lannea grandis) Alder (Alnus nepalensis), walnut (Juglans regia), teak (Tectona grandis), Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata) , khangra (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) of which the last affords a black varnish different from the one before-mentioned The presence of Teak (Tectona grandis) as common species on the hills overlooking Kubo valley has been reported There are also reports of occurrence of wild tea plants (Thea chinensis) in the hill ranges of Heirok , occurrence of Rhododendrons (Rhododendron arboreum) in the hills in the east Presence of willow (Salix tetrasperma) has been noticed in the plain area , northern parts of the state There is also mention about Uningthou Dug out boats from Koubru Forests, Cham Timber from Laimaton Forests There were many other species which were much used in house-building, </p><p>are very durable </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: III">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="III">III</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p>[http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--iii/ TheSangaiExpress] </p><p><br /> </p><p><b>Revenue </b> The money revenue was very small,because the Raja being supplied by his people with everything that a Manipuri could want, the being without money revenue was not a cause of much anxiety So currency money was sparingly used But then the transition had to happen, with more intercourse with particularly Myanmar , Cachar, there had to be medium of transactions, which earlier not cared for has become very important So the importance of money in currency form becomes very important </p><p>The money revenue was very small The currency mentioned is all in rupee The major item coming was from annual compensation paid by British Government to Manipur for Kabo Valley It was Rs per annum The remainder consists of tribute in sale from the sale of Loees, rent of fisheries, transit duties, </p><p>export , import duties The total money revenue may be estimated at from twelve to fifteen thousand Rupees Even with the great disadvantage of an expensive land carriage, the Valley of Manipur is very favorably situated for commercial purposes, but the system of Government is opposed to the development of commerce; , the insecurity of traders in the Burmese territory is so great There is no record of any transaction of timber or forest produce, though in the later part, there was sale of tea seed, ivory, rubber , agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Syn agallocha)to traders in Cachar During this period, the Dimapur Manipur Cart Road has not yet opened The DMC Road became operative a little later in late s after the British took over the country The trade with Assam flourished after that (at one point of time, </p><p>carts were registered) Forest Personnels There is no mention of any employment in forestry except during King Bhagyachandra titled Urungpurel He controlled forests , in addition all the brine wells Dr Brown mentioned in his account that all the brine wells belong to the King Later, as described by TC Hodson, the Urungba Loishang was charged with the duty of providing wood, bamboo, creepers , such materials The Boldeb Seina are overseers of the supply of firewood , Meitansang provides fuel In fact, the King’s Court does not mention much about forests, but more mention has been made about the hills as in those days hills were synonymous with forests This is evident from the survey records of Langol Hills , Heingang Hills in </p><p><br /> </p> <dl><dt> this part I shall deal with when I take up forestry during British period The detail field level functionaries are not mentioned in pre British period, </dt></dl> <p>but during British period, these functionaries are encountered , more fully described Places, history </p> <h1><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: During British Rule (1891-1947)">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="During_British_Rule_.281891-1947.29"> During British Rule (1891-1947)</span></h1> <p><b> Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947)</b> </p><p>By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="1_2">1</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31882-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>Introduction: Sometime back, I brought to the readers an article on the forests of Manipur in the pre colonial period of 1826-1891 (Maharaja Gambhir Singh’s reign to Anglo Manipur War). This article is for the period after Anglo Manipur War till independence of the state in 1947. This period has more concrete documentations and records as available to a large extent. The direction of the administration could be seen from these documents. The systematic documentation of decisions taken is available in the form of Darbar Resolutions, Royal Parwanas, Administration Reports written by the Political Agents, Manipur Gazettes and records of state accounts. In addition, the report of D.C. Kaith, A.J. Milroy, book written by J.C. Higgins were also crucial in making this article. The Cheitharol Kumbaba the royal chronicle was of great help. Regarding availability of plant and tree species I have depended largely on the report of Kaith and the Gazetteer by B.C. Allen. </p><p>Prior to 1891, the state had nine Political Agents and during the British rule, there were fifteen Political Agents, some of them doing second or third term. Among all, Lt. Colonel Maxwell. Colonel Shakespear, Mr. JC Higgins and Mr. W.A. Cosgrave were popular ones. List of Political Agents: Sl Name Length of service </p><p>1 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1892-1893 </p><p>2 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1893-1895 </p><p>3 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1895-1896 </p><p>4 Captain H.W.G. Cole, ICS (Offg) 1896-1898 </p><p>5 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1899-1899 </p><p>6 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1899-1902 </p><p>7 Major Albert E Woods, Indian Army (Offg) 1902-1904 </p><p>8 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1904-1905 </p><p>9 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1905-1908 </p><p>10 A.W. Davis, Esq., ICS, (Offg) 1908-1909 </p><p>11 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1909-1914 </p><p>12 Lt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, ICS, IIA 1914-1917 </p><p>13 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1917-1918 </p><p>14 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS, BA 1918-1920 </p><p>15 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1920-1922 </p><p>16 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1922-1922 </p><p>17 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1922-1924 </p><p>18 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1924-1928 </p><p>19 C.G. Crawford, Esq, ICS (Offg) 1928-1928 </p><p>20 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1928-1933 </p><p>21 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1933-1946 </p><p>22 G.P. Stewart, Esq, ICS 1946-1947 </p><p>The population of the princely state was very low (2.48 lakhs in 1901) and forest area was quite vast with plenty of forest produces were there for taking whenever required and hence, the need for systematic harvesting was not foreseen. Forest management came with the British in 1891 and prior to British Rule in the year 1891, there were no system of scientific management in the state. Records are available about the orders of the state Darbar giving allotment of forest land to private individuals in the hills in the early part of British Rule. There is also a mention of forest revenue being only Rs. 200/- in 1891 (Administration Report of Manipur, 1891). From the records, it also appeared that prior to 1891, there was some export of Forest Produce particularly timber from Manipur to India as can be seen from the records of correspondences made by the Political Agent and Superintendent of Manipur State with the Assam Government and the DFO Cachar on the matter of abolition of import duty levied by the British India from the produces imported from the foreign countries, Manipur government proposing abolition of the said duty. Beyond this, there is no mention of any management or administrative system followed. There was no value of the forest produces due to vastness of the forest and lack of market facilities and poor communication. There was no policy on forest and non forest land. </p><p>The extraction of forest produce commercially started only after 1889, when under an agreement with the Assam Government exploited these forests through the Cachar DFO on 75:25 revenue sharing basis with the later. During the early part of British Rule also, no separate Forest officer was appointed and forestry affairs were looked after by the President, Manipur State Darbar (PMSD popularly known as Chhoto Saheb) till 1931. During this period, collection of royalty from forest produces was introduced through toll stations and constitution of a few reserved forests. In the year 1931, the Forest Department of Manipur was set up with a separate Forest Member (equivalent to Forest Minister of present day). The details are being studied in this article. It is interesting to note that first regular staff appointed specifically for Forest Department was one peon and a clerk under the Darbar Member. </p><p>A. Incumbency: Important incumbents in the administration were HH the Maharaja, The Political Agents, the Presidents of State Darbars, the Darbar Members and the Forest Officers. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 2">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="2">2</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31911-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>List of Vice Presidents and Presidents: Sl. Name Post Length of service </p><p>1 HH, the Maharaja of Manipur President 1907-1916 </p><p>2 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS Vice-President 1907-1910 </p><p>3 C.H. Bell, Esq do 1910-till June </p><p>4 J.C. Higgins Esq do 1910-1916 </p><p>5 J.C. Higgins Esq, President 1916-1917 </p><p>6 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1917-1918 </p><p>7 V. Woods, Esq, CIE President 1918-till July </p><p>8 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1918-1919 </p><p>9 A. Gimson Esq, ICS President 1919-1921 </p><p>10 W. Shaw Esq, CIE President 1921-till June </p><p>11 C.S. Mullan Esq, MA ICS President 1921-1922 </p><p>12 G.C. Crawford Esq, ICS President 1926-till Mar </p><p>13 H. Weightman Esq, ICS President 1925-1926 </p><p>14 A. G. Mc Call Esq, ICS President 1927-1930 </p><p>15 Capt. C.W.L. Harvey, MC, IA President 1930-1933 </p><p>16 G.P. Stewart Esq, ICS, BA, LLB President 1933-1936 </p><p>17 CBC Paine Esq, ICS President 1936-1937 </p><p>18 ARH Mac Donald Esq, ICS President 1937-1939 </p><p>19 T.A. Sharpe Esq, MBE, ICS President 1939-1943 </p><p>20 E.F. Lydall Esq, MA, ICS President 1943-1945 </p><p>21 F.F. Pearson Esq, MBE, IPS President 1945-1947 </p><p>The other political and administrative personalities are not being discussed here. There were two Kings only since Maharaja Churachand Singh became major and became king in 1907 till British left in 1947, Maharaja Churachand Singh and Bodhchandra Singh, and hence they are also not discussed separately. For other posts, the names of the incumbent persons are given in the following paras: </p><p>1. The Political Agents: The Political Agent played an important role in the administration of the state before and after 1891. They were the direct agent of the colonial government and on all important matters his decision or decision taken by the Viceroy or the Governor General through him was final. Particularly during the minority of the maharaja (till 1907), the Political Agent was running the entire administration with the help of a few members of the council, but there was no formal Darbar. </p><p>The powers of the Political Agents were different from than that of the pre British Period. During pre British period, the Political Agents were more or less doing the function of observers or diplomatic functions like ambassadors. During British period, they became all powerful persons in the state administration. All decisions of the Darbar were conveyed to him and serious penalties and punishments were all confirmed by him. The trials of cases involving the Europeans were also done by him and the Darbar did not have that power. Mr. G.P. Stewart was the last Political Agent and he oversaw the transition from colonial rule to the independence. After the British occupation was over, the title of the Political Agent was changed to Dominion Agent (DA) and that continued for sometime but by then, the role of the DA could not be seen much in the Government transactions. The last of the official correspondence with the DA was seen in October, 1947(The Manipur State Gazette, 1947). </p><p>2. The PMSDs (Presidents, Manipur State Darbar): In the beginning, H.H. the Raja of Manipur was the President of the Darbar till 1916 and from 1916, an Europian Officer was made the President of the State Darbar. In 1919 after the Kuki Rebellion, a new Rules of business was made for the Darbar. There were 18 Presidents of the Darbar including H.H. the Raja of Manipur. Other popular PMSD s were Mr. Cosgrave, Mr. JC Higgins, Mr. G.P. Stewart and Capt. CWL Harvey. The Darbar’s main role was to assist the King in administration. However, in the proceedings of the Darbar, the PMSD had a great say and influence; a few decisions taken at the behest of the PMSD could even go against the general feeling of the members. Mr. F.F. Pearson was the last PMSD and in later part of the colonial rule, he was designated as the Chief Minister of Manipur State. During this period many important decisions were taken, which in fact was not called for a transitory Government and they had far reaching impact to the state’s governance. He handed over the charge of Chief Minister to Shri MK PB Singh on independence. </p><p>3. The Darbar Members: The Darbar used to have six members and a President. Prominent Members were Rajkumar Dumbra Singh, Sougaijam Bhubon Singh, Rajkumar Bhaskar Singh, Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh, and Capt. M.K. Priyabarta Singh. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 3">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="3">3</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-31972-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>List of Reserved Forests: </p><p>1. Chingkheiching Reserved Forests 16.06.1937 </p><p>2. Langol & Langol Extn Reserved Forests 02.11.1938 </p><p>3. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 </p><p>4. Khema Reserved Forests 27.02.1946 </p><p>5. Laiching Reserved Forests 07.05.1940 </p><p>6. Sambei Purum Reserved Forests 07.10.1936 </p><p>7. Langjingmanbi Reserved Forests 04.03.1935 </p><p>8. Khamellok-Gwaltabi Reserved Forests 16.09.1946 </p><p>9. Vangai, Tolbung, Kaimai Reserved Forests 29.05.1935 10. Laimaton Reserved Forests 06.03.1941 </p><p><br /> 11. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 </p><p>12. Jiri Makru Reserved Forests 06.01.1939 </p><p>13. Cheklaphai Reserved Forests 28.02.1945 </p><p>14. Yangenching Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 </p><p>15. Kangbung Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 </p><p>16. Longya Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 </p><p>17. Kangchup Reserved Forests 27.04.1940 </p><p>18. Jirimukh Reserved Forests 07.02.1940 </p><p>19. Kangchup Reserved Forests 15.05.1940 </p><p>20. Warok & Konung Reserves Dates not known </p><p>Regarding the Darbar Member in charge of Forests, there was no separate Member in charge of Forests and the subject was looked after the President till 1931, many a times the issues relating to forests were raised by the Judicial Member in the Darbar. </p><p>Shri J.C. Higgins, as Vice President first and later as the President of the State Darbar took a keen interest in the Forests and wild life of Manipur. He first obtained the service of Mr. Rowbotham in 1910 and later of Shri Milroy in 1913 to recommend methods of managing the forests of Manipur. Shri Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh was the first Forest Member and he was the Forest Member since establishment of the Department in 1931 till his promotion as a Judge in 1944 of the Chief Court. He was succeeded by Shri A. Ibotomcha Singh as Forest Member. In 1946-47, Shri W. Chaoba Singh was the Forest Member in the Manipur Darbar. </p><p>4. The Forest Officers: Inspite of the strong recommendations by Shri AJW Milroy and Shri JC. Higgins, the then Vice President, State Darbar, no Forest officer could be appointed for a long time inspite of the fact that Forests, next to land revenue, was the maximum revenue earner for the exchequer. </p><p>There were fund provision for the State Forest officer but these were diverted off and on for other purposes. Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. D.C. Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, Shri C Padmanabh, Shri V Reddi were the forest officers prior to Shri RK Bijoychandra Singh, the local officer who became the State Forest officer (Later on, the Chief Forest Officer). Mr. Rowbotham and Kaith were appointed on temporary basis for assessing the forests and preparing a plan for working. Shri Hari Singh was in Manipur for a little over a year and got appointment as DCF in Bombay (Later, He became the Inspector General of Forests in the Central Government.) Shri V. Reddi was on tour to Jiribam when there were heavy Japanese bombings in Imphal and he could not come back, then he left for home from there. Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh, who was trained ranger (DDR 1937-39) was given charge, later appointed as State Forest officer. He was the first trained local officer. </p><p>Note: Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh later became the Chief Forest Officer (CFO) of Manipur after the British period. He was the Head of Department for more than twentyfive years. B. Forest Protection : I. Forest Reservations done during British: The state used to keep a good chunk of land under reserved forests. The State Darbar was the highest administrative body and as state had control over the land, the reserved forests were created as per Darbar Resolutions. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 4">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="4">4</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32010-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>The forests reserved in these days were Tolbung Reserved Forests, Kaimai Reserved Forests, Leijangphai Protected Forests, Jiri-makru Protected Forests, North Barak-Laikot Protected Forests, Kailam Protected Forests and Langol RF, Heinagang RF, Khema Chingjin to Nongrenching RF. Shri A. MacDonald was the PMSD in the year 1939 and he personally took a keen interest in the protection of forest and regulating the management. Majority of the Reserved Forests of the state were constituted during his tenure as the PMSD. The Kangbung, Longya, Yangenching, Sugnu are the Reserved constituted during his period. In fact about 60% of the Reserved Forests of the state were reserved during British Rule. Note: The Darbar used to give permits for taking out produces from Warok Reserve in Bishnupur District but the author could not trace out the date of constitution/declaring the reserve. Same is for the Konung Reserve, but for Konung Reserve, major portion has been dereserved in much later after independence for const. Prior to setting up of a separate Forest Department in 1931, the fund earmarked for forest management were mostly unutilized. In late 1890s and early 1900, only expenditure for forest protection and management was mostly for two reserves near Imphal (Langol and Heinagnag). </p><p>II. The reserved forests were known as State Reserve or Forest Reserve during British Rule. The Indian Forest Act was not fully implemented during the British period inspite of passing in the State Darbar. These State Reserves or Forest Reserves are equivalent to Reserved Forests under Indian Forest Act in function and purpose and they are saved by the proviso under Sec. 4 of Part C State Laws Act, 1950. III. Declaring Tera (Simul) as State Tree: The Tera tree (Bombax ceiba) was declared as state tree as its fruit was quite important for the state. </p><p>D. Forest Revenue : 1. Revenue Collection: Prior to 1891, revenue from forests was in the form of selling of tea seeds, India Rubber, Ivory, Agarwood etc. But since the British occupied the state, hectic negotiations went on for years for export of timber to British India, but due to heavy imposition of duty, the same could not be done. Some minor items like tea seeds, ivory, agar wood etc. were exported and timber to some extent. But the actual export of timber started only after 1898-99, when under an agreement with the Assam Forest Department, the DFO Cachar was allowed to work the forests on 25:75 revenue sharing basis. This constituted major part of forest revenue. This arrangement continued for quite a long time, and with this came the idea of forest acts and rules as the Assam Forest Regulation is the oldest and well framed forest law. The other sources of revenue were sale of Monopoly right to hill villagers, auction of toll stations, grass mahals, Chalmugra Mahal etc. The revenue from forest contributed on an average about 20% to the state exchequer. </p><p>The internal revenue from forests contributed very little to the state revenue. The two small reserved forests near Imphal (Langol and Heingang) were maintained at an average expenditure of Rs. 500-600 for protection annually and the same was opened for collection of thatch grass, reed and dead wood for two-three months every year, but there is no record of any revenue in 1890s and early 1900s. Further, during 1897-98, the Administration Report recorded that the PWD uses 18000 cft of timber and 66000 cft of firewood but no royalty was paid. It was also noted that the state was the proprietor of forests. According to A. Porteus, the then Political Agent “Upwards of 18,000 cubic feet of pine wood, valued at Rs. 11,000, and 66000 cubic feet of firewood, for neither of which did the state as proprietor, received a single pice, were used during the year by the Public Works Department alone”. </p><p>1. Timber Species under trade: In the Gazetteer of Manipur published in 1905, Mr. B.C. Allen enumerated a few species of timber which were traded with British India. They are as follows: Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, tula, Bora, Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), and Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima). 3. Fixation of Royalty: Due to exporting major portion of timber from the state to Assam, where forest laws were in operation from very early days, the reasonable limit of royalty was known to the state authority since the early days. However, the sale was mostly through auction of fuel wood coupes, toll stations etc. Royalty was fixed from time to time by the Darbar as done in the Darbar Resolution No 10A of 1932 and others. The Darbar revised the rates of royalty vide Darbar Resolution No. 1 of 20.12.1933 for certain timbers and for that of bamboo. The rates of royalty were fixed once again under Darbar Resolution No. 8 of dated 6.9.1944. 2. Forest Revenue & Expenditure I. Sale of Mahals right from 1909. The firewood mahals were in operation in Langol and Heingang Hills. II. Export of Forest produces from Manipur to British India a. Rubber: Creation & Sale of Rubber b. Timber: Negotiation for exemption of cess of 4% from Jiri Borak Forests c. Forest Working through Cachar DFO on Revenue Sharing basis 75:25 </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 5">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="5">5</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32084-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>III. Revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests IV.Toll stations: setting up & putting into auction The Hill Office was created in the early 1930 and with this creation, certain forest areas were put to auction for collection of revenue, by creating mahals in the Assam Style, but there were certain difficulties in operating these mahals. The revenue collection was then through the toll stations opened near the foothills or just outside the town area of Imphal. Imphal toll stations were Sekmai, Sawombung, Kakching etc. These toll stations were mainly for collection of revenue from the forest produces brought to Imphal from the forests of the state other than the Jiri Barak Drainage Forests. </p><p>The working of Burma Border Forests was under consideration for quite some time since the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation applied in 1912-13. The actual income from this aspect came only in 1915-16 and initially the revenue realized from this source was higher than that of the revenue received from the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests. In the year 1915-16, the revenue from Jiri Borak Forests was Rs. 11, 750/- against the revenue of Rs. 16, 816/-, realized from the Burma Border Teak Forests. However, as observed by Shri D. C. Kaith, there was a declining trend as may be seen from Assam Forest Administration Reports: It may clear from the figures of the following five years: </p><p>1899-1900 Rs. 14,998/- </p><p>1900-1901 Rs. 32971/- </p><p>1904-1905 Rs. 44,606/- </p><p>1927-28 Rs. 57,878/- </p><p>1928-29 Rs. 40,807/- </p><p>1929-30 Rs. 22,549/- </p><p>1930-31 Rs. 20595/- </p><p>1931-32 Rs. 8646/- </p><p>But just after intervention of the state due to Shri Kaith’s report, there were a slow improvement in the revenue as may be seen from the records extracted from the Manipur Administration Reports. </p><p>1935-36 Rs 24,565/- </p><p>1936-37 Rs. 30,872/- </p><p>Initially, the export from Jiri Borak Drainage Forests constituted major portion of revenue of Manipur. Later, the revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests also became quite a major part of forest revenue. Earlier, during pre British Period, there was not much source of revenue such as land revenue and hill house tax, the Kabo valley remittance and forest revenue mostly wild elephant sales, tea seeds, agar, ivory etc. constituted major revenue. For the state, the land revenue and hill house tax became more organized with the constitution of sub divisions based at Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Ukhrul etc. during British rule and this item overtook forest revenue as main contributor to the exchequer. </p><p>E. Legal Powers: </p><p>The Darbar had the law making powers: The Darbar Resolutions has the power of law. As such the Darbar yielded tremendous powers. The King on attaining major in the year 1907 was installed as the King and he became the president of the Darbar. But, majority of the powers remained with the Vice president who was a European. In 1916, an Englishmen was made the president, and Maharaja remained head, but just short of being a titular head. The Darbar Resolutions, the serious ones like imprisonment over five years requires HH the Raja’s confirmation in general, but some of the resolutions were put in to practice even without the confirmation of the Raja. Again, most of the serious issues were referred to the Political Agent, who if he felt necessary, was referred to the Governor General. </p><p>Various other resolutions concerning Forests on regulation of Jhuming, extraction, hunting and game rules, fixing of royalty were passed by the Darbar. These resolutions were in fact, the backbone of forest management in the state and they had force of law. </p><p>3. Power of courts vested with the Darbar Member and Forest Officers The Darbar Member was vested with the powers of court to dispose of forest cases by acting as a court. The judgments were made appellable to the Appellate Court and to the Darbar. The passing of Indian Forest Act, 1927 for adoption in the year 1941 and 1945 did not change this arrangement . The Indian Forest Act was not much up to the likings of the Maharaja and did not get his accent. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 6">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="6">6</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32120-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>In fact, the the Darbar was so adapted to the earlier system of disposal of the cases and as such, the newly adopted Act was seldom quoted in the later proceedings of the Darbar or the other courts till 1950, only after the Act was formally adopted under Section 4 of Part C Laws Act, 1950. F. Scientific Management: </p><p>In fact, the first management plan of forests started in Travancore state in 1837 (by Munro) in simple prescription of quantum of felling in Teak forests. Dr. Brandis before he came to India, tried scientific management of forests in Pegu (Burma) in 1856. Later he became IGF in India and introduced scientific management in Indian Forests 1864, but due to its unique geographic location and topographic features, the scientific system of management prevalent in India in the early and mid nineteenth century with Sir Dr. D. Brandis did not reach Manipur. So, the management of history can be studied in two parts, the Pre-Kaith and Post Kaith period. </p><p>(i) Pre Kaith Period (1891-1932) Due to lack of trained staff and due to the conditions of communication and socio economy, forest management was not given scientific touch. The first forest officer involved in the management of forest of the state was D.C. Kith, an officer from Himachal Pradesh taken on deputation in the year 1932. Shri Kaith was appointed by the president, Manipur State Darbar, Shri CWL Harvey (Capt. Harvey) and His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur. His appointment was approved vide Darbar Resolution No 3 of 6.6.1932. There were some British Forest Officers prior to Mr. Kaith. They were Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. AJW. Milroy etc., but Kaith’s Report was the most elaborate one. 1. Milroy’s Report: Earlier, prior to British rule, there were posts of Urungpurel in the court of the Kings but after British occupation, there were no mention of the post and there was no specific staff or system of forest management though the income from forests was major source of revenue. </p><p>In 1910-11, Mr. Rowbotham reported on the forests of Manipur. Mr. AJW Milroy, a forest officer from Assam (who later became the Conservator of Forests) was assigned to work out a management plan. Initially, the plan of hiring him was submitted in 1913. But the Darbar considered that the plan was to expensive to implement and asked the Officiating Conservator of forests of Assam only for a plan for dividing forests in Borak Drainage Forests in to blocks for systematic extraction (DR No. 7 dated 4.6.13). Ultimately Shri Milroy was hired and submitted a report in 1914. His plan mostly contained the silvicultural aspects, regeneration and harvesting but the detail survey and inventorisation part was not given much importance. </p><p>The Darbar agreed that the report of Milroy submitted in February, 1914 would need and European Officer in place of An Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests. The Darbar also agreed for payment to such an officer for this purpose. As the luck would have it, war broke out and the attention of the Political Agent and other British Officers was diverted to war. Another reason was that sivicultural activities would have cost dearly beyond the estimation by the state. But, there was a provision kept in the budget under the Head-Forestry for a long time which could not be spent, probably a suitable officer could not be appointed. The appointment of any dedicated staff did not take place for a long time even after the reports of Rowbotham and Milroy and till 1931 when the first Darbar Member known as Forest Member was appointed. </p><p>2. Appointment of Forest Member: The year 1931 seem to be a special year for the Department. The post of Forest Member came in to existence in the year 1931. The Darbar Member assumed charge on 1st November, 1931 and thus the Department came in to existence. This date has been regarded as birthday of the Department. The moves that the new Darbar Member made can be seen from the Darbar Resolutions passed on the 7th November and 14th November, 1931. From the Darbar Resolution No. 7 dated 14.11.1931, it is quite evident that the activities were stepped up as first step, the forest management of Langol and Heingang Reserves were made more systematic by dividing in to blocks (mahals) for systematic harvesting. </p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 7">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="7">7</span></h2> <p>By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32136-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>3. Kaith’s Report: He was given first assignment to write about Manipur Forests specially of Jiri barak Drainage Forests which at present covers western Forest Division, Jiribam Forest Division and a portion of Tengnoupal Forest Division. The extreme emphasis given in these parts of the forests was due to its proximity to the mainland India and availability of water transport facility for the produces. </p><p>Shri Kaith’s report was very comprehensive one and was taken as the foundation of forestry in Manipur. He recommended working of forests of Manipur based on four distinct units, the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, the Burma Border Forests, Forests overlooking the Imphal Valley and North and East Forests. Due to the heavy demand of forests produces from British India, the management suggested for Jiri Borak Drainage Forests was much more elaborate. Simultaneous with his survey works, the Darbar Resolution No 10A which is virtually the Forest Policy of the state was passed in 1032 and there were marked change in the concept of exploitation of forests. The four types of forests are envisaged in this policy are: </p><p>State Reserve – to be put under strict state protection Valley Village Reserve- for the villages situated in the valley but depending on the forests in the nearby hills for meeting their requirements, Hill Village Reserve- Known as ¼ miles reserve to be maintained around each recognized village, Open Reserve- open for commercial and domestic requirement with permit. </p><p>Besides, the Darbar also fixed rates of royalty realizable from the open reserves. Later on in subsequent years, the village chiefs were given the preference of buying back the mpnopoly right on payment of a very low payment of M. Fee as fixed by the Darbar. The importance of the Darbar Resolution No. 10A are as follows: </p><p>1. It was the first policy guideline for management of Forests in the state. 2. The state reserves was given top priority 3. Extraction was regulated and allowed on permit system 4. Realisation of royalty was introduced For regulating shifting cultivation and reducing its adverse impact on the forests of the state, the Darbar passed another resolution which says that for shifting cultivation, permission of the Manipur State Darbar or the Maharaja is required, but this could not be effectively implemented. </p><p>After Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, another product of Edinburgh became the State Forest Officer. He stayed for one year in Manipur and he was followed by Shri C. Padmanabh. Shri Padmanabh worked till 1940. Next was Shri K.V. Reddy who stayed upto 1942. During this period, Shri L.M. Singh was the Darbar Member in Charge of Forests and it was during this period that the Indian Forest Act, 1927 was moved for adoption in Manipur with a few modifications. The Indian Forest Act was first moved for adoption in the year 1941 and later passed by the Darbar for adoption with amendments and modifications in 1945, but the Maharaja did not give his consent. After Shri Reddy, local officers came, Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh was the first local forest officer. </p><p>(ii). Post Kaith Period (1933 – 1947): After Kaith’s Report was submitted in September, 1933, there were marked changes in the forest management of the state. Important landmark changes are: 1. Powers of Court given to Darbar Member 2. Block System for Selection System of Forestry 3. Introduction of exotics like Wattle, Gravillea, Taxodium, Mahogany etc. Other important recommendations of Mr. D.C. Kaith are as follows: 1. The State Forest Officer and Darbar Member were given the power to try Forest Offences. 2. Court of Appeal could hear appeals on forest offences 3. Recommended to follow Assam Style of working and Assam Forest Manual and Darbar take advice from Conservator of Assam on regular basis. 4. Resin tapping was identified as a source of revenue. 5. Called for more investment in forestry sector. 6. Timber blocks system was introduced for extraction of timber. 7. State should manage its own forests (the management of Jiri-Borak Drainage Forest was taken over in 1936) Classification of Products: The terms major and minor produces were introduced after the report of Kaith(1933). He termed timber as Major produce. The minor produces he defined are Grass, Firewood, orchids, pine wood splinters (pine torches), canes, tea seed, bee wax, deer horn etc. He proposed that the barks of Oaks, particularly Sahi Kuhi be used for tanning purposes. Actually, the major and minor forest produces have not been described even in the Indian Forest Act, 1927. </p><p>G. Creation of Mahals: Certain Mahals were in operation during the period. The important mahals were the the Tea Seed Mahals, Agar Mahals, Chalmugra Mahals, Grass Mahals etc. The Grass Mahals continued to provide a steady Revenue as the requirement for housing was quite high, as thatch roofing was common means of roofing. Export selling of tea seeds and Agar Mahals continued since the pre British period on piecemeal basis, but only in later period of British period these were constituted in to mahals. </p><p>Two Chalmugra mahals were created vide Darbar Resolution No. 12 of 8. 4.1936. The Seeds of Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) yield Chalmugra oil. The two mahals were one for the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests and other one for the rest of the state. These mahals were allowed to be leased out commencing from 1st April, 1936. The royalty was fixed at Rs. 1 per maund vide Darbar Resolution No. 8 dated 5.5.1936 on the recommendation of the Deputy Conservation of Forests. Regarding working of firewood, the coupe system was followed quite early in the Langol and Heingang Reserves. As for timber working, Shri Kaith recommended the division of forests into certain blocks for convenience in management. </p> <pre>Accordingly, the Jiri-Barak Drainage Forests and adjoining Forests were divided into 19 (nineteen) timber blocks for proper management and extraction of the Forests. These blocks are all based on the watershed concept, and considering the period in which these were done, could be regarded as an advance system. Secondly, as in those days, water transport was the only one available, the watersheds draining into a major rivers such as Irang, Barak, Makru, Jiri, Ijei, Leimatak, Tipai etc. were taken as basis for dividing in to different timber blocks. Even today also, water is the only means of transport from the timber blocks M-IV, M-V, MXIV, M-XV etc. These units are by and large taken as management units of forests of these parts. </pre> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/ind/index.php?title=Manipur:_Forests&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 8">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="8">8</span></h2> <p>By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/tseitm-32167-forests-of-manipur-during-british-rule-18911947/">TheSangaiExpress</a> </p><p>H. Forest Composition: Watt (1888) divided the forests in to three vegetation zones, but the same has not been reflected in the writings of the authors of those times like B. C. Allen, Mc Kenzie and others. B.C. Allen (1905) gave a list of timbers that were much in demand in Surma Valley in early 1890s. These species have been covered in the listings done by Shri Kaith later. The Forest Type Classification of H.G. Champion (1935) was not much known to the forest administration of the princely state. According to Kaith, the forests was divided in to four types, the evergreen forests of Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, Imphal Valley Forests of Oak and Pine, North East Pine Forests and Burma Border Teak Forests. </p><p>(i) Composition in Jiri Borak Forests (Local/common names as in Jiri & Cachar): Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Tula (Tetrameles nudiflora), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, Bora (Trewia nudiflora), Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Mishi, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima), Koroi (A. procera), Siris (A. stipulata), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasha), Chatni(Alstonia scholaris), Patri Chawan (Alseodaphne petiolaris) and Bamboos like Dolu, Pecha, Muli, Kala Sundi etc. Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) was common fruit tree (Minor Forest Produce). (ii) Composition of Burma Border Forests: Khangra, Yangou, Toon, Larong ( Dillenia pentagyna), Laihidak, Jam, Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata), Engelhardtia, Teak, (iii) Composition of forests around Imphal valley: Siris, Pareng, Tera, Chingthrau, Panggong (Butea monosperma), Tairel, Nanap, Lamuk (Cordia myxa), Heigri, Jam, Chorphon, Heitroi (Flacourtia catafracta), Wang, Heibung, Ushoi, Shahi, Thangji, orchids etc. </p><p>I. Wildlife: During pre-British period, the wild life protection was given only some mentions, even the king had to pay some tribes for eliminate and kill dangerous animals like tigers. The Sangai, of course received royal protection. The country had its first game rules passed in 1916 under the stewardship of J.C. Higgins. Hunting of game animals was in existence since pre British period and this new rule sought to regulate hunting. It was later amended in 1931. J.C. Higgins wrote the book Game Birds and Animals of Manipur and he listed important birds and animals in his book in 1918. Regarding the birds, he has given an elaborate account dividing the book in to VI parts, but gave a brief account of animals confined in the last chapter. The birds were Geese, Ducks, Teals, Shoveller, Pochards, Snipes, Bustards, Plovers, Cranes, Terns, Coots, Jungle fowls, Burmese Peafowls, Partridges, Quails etc. Among the mammals, important ones are Elephant, rhinoceros, Bison, Mithun, Buffalo, Sabeng, Sambhar, Kharsa, Jungle Cat, Wild Dog, Jackal, Himalayan Black Bear, Malayan Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard etc. as cited by him. </p><p>I. Regeneration of Forests: </p><p>Till late stage of British rule, forest regeneration was not given any serious thought and no part of the money revenue was ploughed back to Forests though Kaith recommended 20% to be ploughed back. As a result the forests deteriorated quite seriously. Shri D.C. Kaith strongly cautioned the administration on this. Only after his report, there were remarkable changes in Forestry sector. Regeneration activities were taken up in the Langol RF, Heingang, RF, Kangchup RF, Jirimukh RF and many other RFs. Important species planted were Teak, Mahogany, Jarol, Pine etc. Side by side, introduction of exotics such as Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Grevillea, Jacaranda. Wattle etc. were also taken up. Remnants of those attempts of wattle were seen till a few years back in Tadubi and Ukhrul areas. Introduction of Wattle could be related to production of tannins which the PMSD and Political Agents thought could be used for tanning the hides of cattle to leather which could generate income. Sir James Johnstone tried orchards and vegetables in Kangchup areas. </p><p>Conclusion: There were active evolution in forest management during British rule and all the major pillars of forest management like Framing of Game Rules, Constitution of Reserved Forest, Framing of Forest policy and adoption of Indian Forest Act (with modifications for the state) were taken up during period. However, considering that much more progress were made during this period in the mainland India in the field of scientific management, much more could have been done, because, the impact of forest management did not reach major parts of the state’s hilly region. </p><p>The Darbar and King were not always happy with the European PAs and PMSDs. One or two examples of that can be seen in the Darbar Resolutions. A few of the decisions were against the general will of the members and king, but then it was colonial days, the fallout of that we are still experiencing. </p>
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Contents 1 Manipur: Forests 2 In the Pre-British Period 2.1 1 2.1.1 The Period 2.1.2 The Golden Age 2.2 II 2.2.1 Incumbency 2.2.2 Demography 2.2.3 Forest land 2.2.4 Climate 2.2.5 Composition of Forests 2.3 III 3 During British Rule (1891-1947) 3.1 1 3.2 2 3.3 3 3.4 4 3.5 5 3.6 6 3.7 7 3.8 8 [edit] Manipur: Forests [edit] In the Pre-British Period Forests of Manipur during Pre-British Period (-) [edit] 1 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period-/ TheSangaiExpress] Aug-Sept Our understanding of the past tradition, conventions, decisions , agreements , other historical facts are our guiding factors in taking the present decisions They also shape our thinkings to a great extent This is the reason for this attempt of mine to study the condition of forests of Manipur during the Pre-British Period During the period prior to British Rule, the population of Manipur was so less , forests so thick that any form of forestry was not thought of With no systematic modern education , very less contact with outside world except the hostile engagement with Burmese, not much exchange of knowledge took place The old literature which had some bearing on forestry such as Uyanlon (on art of felling trees), Heejing Heerao (on art of making boats), Urol (on description of trees), Leirol (on description of flowers) have not been documented in to common language which people can understand or scientifically interpreted so that it is universally understood These are parts of archaic literature , considered to be a part of the Puyas or scriptures They do not fall in to the period of which I am going to describe, so no reference is made to these literatures It is fortunate that we have the Royal Chronicles, the Chietharol Kumbaba , accounts of other writers of this period such as Captain RB Pemberton, Colonel William McCulloch, Dr Robert Brown, Mr TC Hudson, Mr Alexander McKenzie, Mr EW Dun, BC Allen, Sir James Johnstone etc The reports of Capt Pemberton, Col McCulloch , Dr Brown are important as they are relevant to the period of this article Mr Mckenzie’s report () is also quite helpful as it has summarized all these reports , corroborated with official correspondences he received in his office at Calcutta I consulted some of the works of famous historians of Manipur like Dr L Chandramani Singh , Prof Gangmumei Kamei Prof Gangmumei had a paragraph on forests in his book, History of Manipur (Vol ) Dr L Chandramani Singh’s account on the genesis of boundary of Manipur , its extent was also a useful reference I heartily acknowledge all the materials I have availed out of these great works I have also collected some materials from the works of Shri RK Somorjit Sana on the Chronicles of Manipur Monarchs from to It was a country of eight thousand square miles plus with a sparse population, could be remnant of a great civilization only But one fact that everybody shall agree is the wonderful social system that existed in those days It is most fascinating aspect of Manipuri society Perhaps, we may need to do more documentation on all those aspects of this beautiful land For this write up, I am not blending it with modern findings about fauna , flora, Geology, climate etc, of which we have fairly good data now I would prefer to describe them in the works of that period in their own words, limit my presentation to what the earlier writers have found in their accounts, because we need to understand the understanding of the people of that period of time about the forestry , their dependence on forests Let me also confess that not much of findings could be made, but that little I could find are of great interests, at least academically, I hope, those who are in the fraternity shall share same feelings [edit] The Period The Pre British Period can be studied in two parts, the periods from to but the period covered in this article is for the later The first period is from since the British established some relationship at the time of Warren Hastings by doing a treaty (By Governor Verelest of Bengal Presidency) with Maharaj Bhagyachandra (Jai Singh) till the seven years devastation in But not much was made out of the treaty as during the currency of the treaty, the seven years devastation took place Going back beyond this period () shall not yield much to the cause of this article Prior to seven years devastation, there had been several encounters with Myanmar (Burmese), but Marjit Singh managed to be on the throne with Burmese help by surrendering most of the rights Such right included forest right of Kubo Valley But when he was building the Palace, he felled teak trees in Kubo Valley , brought the timber, for construction of his palace, the Burmese were infuriated This could be or was one of the reason for invasion in addition to his act of insubordination The seven years devastation ended in with Gambhir Singh with the assistance of British drove away the Burmese , started his reign The main part of this study of this period, is from (the reign of Gambhir Singh) to in (Anglo Manipur war) During his time also, there were a number of treaties with British , the territory of the country was defined, in the North with British Territory of Assam, in the west with Cachar District, in the south with Lushai Territory , in the east with Burma (Myanmar) In the mainland India by this time, much development has taken place being post mutiny period The British has taken a number of landmark steps toward governance During this period, the CrPC , IPC were passed ( , ) The Imperial Forest Department of the British India was set up in appointed Mr D Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests , introduced scientific Forestry The first Indian Forest Act was passed in amended in to be instrument of scientific management This being the period of industrial development in Europe , colonial expansion, huge quantity of raw materials were required , all the scientific principles for sustained yield were introduced But these developments did not have much inspect in forestry scenario of the state [edit] The Golden Age The period of - can be regarded as golden age of Manipur History as during this period, the Maharaja drove Burmese out from Manipur beyond Ningthee River (Chindwin), established the kingdom once again , made Ningthee as the boundary of the country With the help of British, the country had its own army comprising of infantry with guns who are trained , drilled properly In addition, there were cavalry of men which could go up to men , artillery of another men This was quite a formidable force for the Burmese , other unorganized uprisings The Burmese no longer troubled the people of Manipur There were a lot of activities for consolidation of the territory Some beginnings were also made for Jarip (but stopped later) The relation with British was reasonably good for the entire period except on two occasions, one when the British Drawn Map leaving out a number of villages along borders with Assam (Naga Hills) were not accepted secondly when the request from British for a plot of land for construction of a Dak Bungalow at Kohima was not agreed by the King Of course, Anglo Manipur war in was a turning point not only in the history of Manipur but for forestry in Manipur too There were a lot of possibilities of having a different course of history , geography of Manipur had this war not taken place Contrary to this period, the previous sixty years were full of turmoil, feud amongst the princes , frequent invasion by Burmese There was one treaty with British in but the same was not given effect by both parties The attempts of Mr Verelst to extend military cooperation with Manipur Kings to contain Burmese could not materialize According to McKenzie, there is nothing worth mentioning during this period This period was marred with feuds among the princes for the throne frequent subjugation by the Burmese [edit] II By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--ii/ TheSangaiExpress] [edit] Incumbency The table shows the period of reign of different kings , the corresponding Political Agents Sl Name of Kings Period of reign Maharaja Gambhir Singh Maharaja Nar Singh - Maharaja Debendra Singh ( mnths) Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh Maharaja Surchandra Singh Maharaja Kulachandra Singh Sir James Johnstonn Major Trotter Mr Grimwood Sl Name of Political Agents Period of Service Captain Gordon Major Mc Culloch Dr Dillon Major W McCulloch Dr R Brown, FRCSE GH Damant [edit] Demography The massacre of men , flight of people that took place during the seven years devastation period, feud among the princes prior to this period has taken heavy toll on the population A huge number of people were also taken away by the Burmese during their invasions in mid eighteenth century , during seven years devastation Mr Francis Hamilton reported that he saw people as captives near Ava During the reign of Gambhir Singh in the male population has been reported to be eight thousand souls only In it has been reported to be , only However, in the report of Political agency of the year the population has been recorded to be about lakhs The formal census of is said to have an element of irrelevancy but it has been quoted at lakhs The details of has been destroyed during the war before it could be documented , archived For my this article, I am not very concerned of the population figure of census (population was reported as ) [edit] Forest land As one can understand, the developments in the mainland India did not reach Manipur; one because it was an independent country, second, it was too landlocked for people from other lands to come , interact It was well isolated, very sparsely populated The legal implication of the term seems to be not thought of All the hills except in , around the central plains were all abound in thick forests The hill lands were divided in to five lams, each of which were under the charge of an official assisted by eight lambus The function of these officials has nothing to do with forestry Forestry became more streamlined after British conquest only The extraction was carried out without proper demarcation for sale to the British India, at Cachar Market (Silchar Bazar) from the parts of Forests of Kalanaga Hills (exchanged with Eastern Surma valley portion of Manipur under a treaty), Forests in the Jiri Borak Drainange Forests These forests were mapped much later after British occupation The forests in the Kabaw Valley were not extracted commercially, by the state, whatever extraction that has been done must have been under arrangement through British Burmese Government, as there is no record of revenue accrued from that part The forests suffered a lot from Jhuming , burning recklessly The descriptions of such fires are available in the Annual Administration Reports of the Manipur Agency, by Sir James Johnstone [edit] Climate The climate of the central plain portion of the valley was stated to be good, but the temperature was stated to be higher than from the elevation, feet, would have expected This excess in temperature may probably be owing to the reflection of heat from the sides of the lofty mountains surrounding The months of November, December, January, February, hoar frosts are prevalent January is the coldest, May , June are the hottest months in the year In May, the hill streams begin to rise, they usually remain full until October Storms are very rare, those terrific peals of thunder, brilliant flashes of lightning for which mountain countries are celebrated seldom occur The remaining eight months are more or less rainy Dew falls heavily, before the sun has set, the grass is usually saturated The wind blows chiefly from the South-West, whilst it does so, the country retains its usual healthiness It was believed that an Easterly wind, continued for any time, brings with it sickness [edit] Composition of Forests In his report, Captain Pemberton recorded that there were thick forest, dense , impervious from summit to the base According to him, I know no spot in India, in which the product of forests are more varied , magnificent Mr BC Allen also described the forests as … has lain across range after range of mountains, covered with forests so dense that it is seldom that he can see as much as a quarter of a mile before him In fact, there are nine ranges of hills between Imphal , Cachar The eastern face of the hill, Laimatol (now a Reserved Forests) was covered with short grasses, Imom , Tumnou probably There is also a small chapter on forests , vegetation in the report of R Brown published in the Imperial Gazetteer in It has been observed that the composition of the forests have never been studied , plants identified Timber trees are plentiful, but those only near the Cachar Frontier have any commercial value, there Jarool (Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Nagesur (Mesua ferrea), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasa), Wang (Gmelina arborea), Toon (Cedrella toona), India Rubber (Ficus elastica) are found Besides these, in the mountains are found oaks (Quercus species, Q serrata, Q dealbata, Q semiserrata , Castanopsis hystrix), Indian fir (Polyalthia longifolia), Indian Ash (Lannea grandis) Alder (Alnus nepalensis), walnut (Juglans regia), teak (Tectona grandis), Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata) , khangra (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) of which the last affords a black varnish different from the one before-mentioned The presence of Teak (Tectona grandis) as common species on the hills overlooking Kubo valley has been reported There are also reports of occurrence of wild tea plants (Thea chinensis) in the hill ranges of Heirok , occurrence of Rhododendrons (Rhododendron arboreum) in the hills in the east Presence of willow (Salix tetrasperma) has been noticed in the plain area , northern parts of the state There is also mention about Uningthou Dug out boats from Koubru Forests, Cham Timber from Laimaton Forests There were many other species which were much used in house-building, are very durable [edit] III By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [http//wwwthesangaiexpresscom/tseitm--forests-of-manipur-during-prebritish-period--iii/ TheSangaiExpress] Revenue The money revenue was very small,because the Raja being supplied by his people with everything that a Manipuri could want, the being without money revenue was not a cause of much anxiety So currency money was sparingly used But then the transition had to happen, with more intercourse with particularly Myanmar , Cachar, there had to be medium of transactions, which earlier not cared for has become very important So the importance of money in currency form becomes very important The money revenue was very small The currency mentioned is all in rupee The major item coming was from annual compensation paid by British Government to Manipur for Kabo Valley It was Rs per annum The remainder consists of tribute in sale from the sale of Loees, rent of fisheries, transit duties, export , import duties The total money revenue may be estimated at from twelve to fifteen thousand Rupees Even with the great disadvantage of an expensive land carriage, the Valley of Manipur is very favorably situated for commercial purposes, but the system of Government is opposed to the development of commerce; , the insecurity of traders in the Burmese territory is so great There is no record of any transaction of timber or forest produce, though in the later part, there was sale of tea seed, ivory, rubber , agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Syn agallocha)to traders in Cachar During this period, the Dimapur Manipur Cart Road has not yet opened The DMC Road became operative a little later in late s after the British took over the country The trade with Assam flourished after that (at one point of time, carts were registered) Forest Personnels There is no mention of any employment in forestry except during King Bhagyachandra titled Urungpurel He controlled forests , in addition all the brine wells Dr Brown mentioned in his account that all the brine wells belong to the King Later, as described by TC Hodson, the Urungba Loishang was charged with the duty of providing wood, bamboo, creepers , such materials The Boldeb Seina are overseers of the supply of firewood , Meitansang provides fuel In fact, the King’s Court does not mention much about forests, but more mention has been made about the hills as in those days hills were synonymous with forests This is evident from the survey records of Langol Hills , Heingang Hills in this part I shall deal with when I take up forestry during British period The detail field level functionaries are not mentioned in pre British period, but during British period, these functionaries are encountered , more fully described Places, history [edit] During British Rule (1891-1947) Forests of Manipur during British Rule (1891-1947) By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh [edit] 1 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress Introduction: Sometime back, I brought to the readers an article on the forests of Manipur in the pre colonial period of 1826-1891 (Maharaja Gambhir Singh’s reign to Anglo Manipur War). This article is for the period after Anglo Manipur War till independence of the state in 1947. This period has more concrete documentations and records as available to a large extent. The direction of the administration could be seen from these documents. The systematic documentation of decisions taken is available in the form of Darbar Resolutions, Royal Parwanas, Administration Reports written by the Political Agents, Manipur Gazettes and records of state accounts. In addition, the report of D.C. Kaith, A.J. Milroy, book written by J.C. Higgins were also crucial in making this article. The Cheitharol Kumbaba the royal chronicle was of great help. Regarding availability of plant and tree species I have depended largely on the report of Kaith and the Gazetteer by B.C. Allen. Prior to 1891, the state had nine Political Agents and during the British rule, there were fifteen Political Agents, some of them doing second or third term. Among all, Lt. Colonel Maxwell. Colonel Shakespear, Mr. JC Higgins and Mr. W.A. Cosgrave were popular ones. List of Political Agents: Sl Name Length of service 1 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1892-1893 2 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1893-1895 3 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1895-1896 4 Captain H.W.G. Cole, ICS (Offg) 1896-1898 5 A. Porteus, Esq. ICS 1899-1899 6 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1899-1902 7 Major Albert E Woods, Indian Army (Offg) 1902-1904 8 Lt. Colonel H.St. P. Maxwell, ICS, CSI 1904-1905 9 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1905-1908 10 A.W. Davis, Esq., ICS, (Offg) 1908-1909 11 Colonel J. Shakespear, CIE, DSO, IA 1909-1914 12 Lt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, ICS, IIA 1914-1917 13 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1917-1918 14 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS, BA 1918-1920 15 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1920-1922 16 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1922-1922 17 L.O. Clarke, Esq, CIS, ICS 1922-1924 18 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1924-1928 19 C.G. Crawford, Esq, ICS (Offg) 1928-1928 20 J.C. Higgins, Esq. ICS 1928-1933 21 C.Gimson, Esq, (Offg) 1933-1946 22 G.P. Stewart, Esq, ICS 1946-1947 The population of the princely state was very low (2.48 lakhs in 1901) and forest area was quite vast with plenty of forest produces were there for taking whenever required and hence, the need for systematic harvesting was not foreseen. Forest management came with the British in 1891 and prior to British Rule in the year 1891, there were no system of scientific management in the state. Records are available about the orders of the state Darbar giving allotment of forest land to private individuals in the hills in the early part of British Rule. There is also a mention of forest revenue being only Rs. 200/- in 1891 (Administration Report of Manipur, 1891). From the records, it also appeared that prior to 1891, there was some export of Forest Produce particularly timber from Manipur to India as can be seen from the records of correspondences made by the Political Agent and Superintendent of Manipur State with the Assam Government and the DFO Cachar on the matter of abolition of import duty levied by the British India from the produces imported from the foreign countries, Manipur government proposing abolition of the said duty. Beyond this, there is no mention of any management or administrative system followed. There was no value of the forest produces due to vastness of the forest and lack of market facilities and poor communication. There was no policy on forest and non forest land. The extraction of forest produce commercially started only after 1889, when under an agreement with the Assam Government exploited these forests through the Cachar DFO on 75:25 revenue sharing basis with the later. During the early part of British Rule also, no separate Forest officer was appointed and forestry affairs were looked after by the President, Manipur State Darbar (PMSD popularly known as Chhoto Saheb) till 1931. During this period, collection of royalty from forest produces was introduced through toll stations and constitution of a few reserved forests. In the year 1931, the Forest Department of Manipur was set up with a separate Forest Member (equivalent to Forest Minister of present day). The details are being studied in this article. It is interesting to note that first regular staff appointed specifically for Forest Department was one peon and a clerk under the Darbar Member. A. Incumbency: Important incumbents in the administration were HH the Maharaja, The Political Agents, the Presidents of State Darbars, the Darbar Members and the Forest Officers. [edit] 2 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress List of Vice Presidents and Presidents: Sl. Name Post Length of service 1 HH, the Maharaja of Manipur President 1907-1916 2 W.A. Cosgrave, Esq, ICS Vice-President 1907-1910 3 C.H. Bell, Esq do 1910-till June 4 J.C. Higgins Esq do 1910-1916 5 J.C. Higgins Esq, President 1916-1917 6 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1917-1918 7 V. Woods, Esq, CIE President 1918-till July 8 Robert H Henderson Esq, CIE President 1918-1919 9 A. Gimson Esq, ICS President 1919-1921 10 W. Shaw Esq, CIE President 1921-till June 11 C.S. Mullan Esq, MA ICS President 1921-1922 12 G.C. Crawford Esq, ICS President 1926-till Mar 13 H. Weightman Esq, ICS President 1925-1926 14 A. G. Mc Call Esq, ICS President 1927-1930 15 Capt. C.W.L. Harvey, MC, IA President 1930-1933 16 G.P. Stewart Esq, ICS, BA, LLB President 1933-1936 17 CBC Paine Esq, ICS President 1936-1937 18 ARH Mac Donald Esq, ICS President 1937-1939 19 T.A. Sharpe Esq, MBE, ICS President 1939-1943 20 E.F. Lydall Esq, MA, ICS President 1943-1945 21 F.F. Pearson Esq, MBE, IPS President 1945-1947 The other political and administrative personalities are not being discussed here. There were two Kings only since Maharaja Churachand Singh became major and became king in 1907 till British left in 1947, Maharaja Churachand Singh and Bodhchandra Singh, and hence they are also not discussed separately. For other posts, the names of the incumbent persons are given in the following paras: 1. The Political Agents: The Political Agent played an important role in the administration of the state before and after 1891. They were the direct agent of the colonial government and on all important matters his decision or decision taken by the Viceroy or the Governor General through him was final. Particularly during the minority of the maharaja (till 1907), the Political Agent was running the entire administration with the help of a few members of the council, but there was no formal Darbar. The powers of the Political Agents were different from than that of the pre British Period. During pre British period, the Political Agents were more or less doing the function of observers or diplomatic functions like ambassadors. During British period, they became all powerful persons in the state administration. All decisions of the Darbar were conveyed to him and serious penalties and punishments were all confirmed by him. The trials of cases involving the Europeans were also done by him and the Darbar did not have that power. Mr. G.P. Stewart was the last Political Agent and he oversaw the transition from colonial rule to the independence. After the British occupation was over, the title of the Political Agent was changed to Dominion Agent (DA) and that continued for sometime but by then, the role of the DA could not be seen much in the Government transactions. The last of the official correspondence with the DA was seen in October, 1947(The Manipur State Gazette, 1947). 2. The PMSDs (Presidents, Manipur State Darbar): In the beginning, H.H. the Raja of Manipur was the President of the Darbar till 1916 and from 1916, an Europian Officer was made the President of the State Darbar. In 1919 after the Kuki Rebellion, a new Rules of business was made for the Darbar. There were 18 Presidents of the Darbar including H.H. the Raja of Manipur. Other popular PMSD s were Mr. Cosgrave, Mr. JC Higgins, Mr. G.P. Stewart and Capt. CWL Harvey. The Darbar’s main role was to assist the King in administration. However, in the proceedings of the Darbar, the PMSD had a great say and influence; a few decisions taken at the behest of the PMSD could even go against the general feeling of the members. Mr. F.F. Pearson was the last PMSD and in later part of the colonial rule, he was designated as the Chief Minister of Manipur State. During this period many important decisions were taken, which in fact was not called for a transitory Government and they had far reaching impact to the state’s governance. He handed over the charge of Chief Minister to Shri MK PB Singh on independence. 3. The Darbar Members: The Darbar used to have six members and a President. Prominent Members were Rajkumar Dumbra Singh, Sougaijam Bhubon Singh, Rajkumar Bhaskar Singh, Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh, and Capt. M.K. Priyabarta Singh. [edit] 3 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress List of Reserved Forests: 1. Chingkheiching Reserved Forests 16.06.1937 2. Langol & Langol Extn Reserved Forests 02.11.1938 3. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 4. Khema Reserved Forests 27.02.1946 5. Laiching Reserved Forests 07.05.1940 6. Sambei Purum Reserved Forests 07.10.1936 7. Langjingmanbi Reserved Forests 04.03.1935 8. Khamellok-Gwaltabi Reserved Forests 16.09.1946 9. Vangai, Tolbung, Kaimai Reserved Forests 29.05.1935 10. Laimaton Reserved Forests 06.03.1941 11. Heingang Reserved Forests 23.07.1913 12. Jiri Makru Reserved Forests 06.01.1939 13. Cheklaphai Reserved Forests 28.02.1945 14. Yangenching Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 15. Kangbung Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 16. Longya Reserved Forests 16.01.1939 17. Kangchup Reserved Forests 27.04.1940 18. Jirimukh Reserved Forests 07.02.1940 19. Kangchup Reserved Forests 15.05.1940 20. Warok & Konung Reserves Dates not known Regarding the Darbar Member in charge of Forests, there was no separate Member in charge of Forests and the subject was looked after the President till 1931, many a times the issues relating to forests were raised by the Judicial Member in the Darbar. Shri J.C. Higgins, as Vice President first and later as the President of the State Darbar took a keen interest in the Forests and wild life of Manipur. He first obtained the service of Mr. Rowbotham in 1910 and later of Shri Milroy in 1913 to recommend methods of managing the forests of Manipur. Shri Lairenmayum Ibungohal Singh was the first Forest Member and he was the Forest Member since establishment of the Department in 1931 till his promotion as a Judge in 1944 of the Chief Court. He was succeeded by Shri A. Ibotomcha Singh as Forest Member. In 1946-47, Shri W. Chaoba Singh was the Forest Member in the Manipur Darbar. 4. The Forest Officers: Inspite of the strong recommendations by Shri AJW Milroy and Shri JC. Higgins, the then Vice President, State Darbar, no Forest officer could be appointed for a long time inspite of the fact that Forests, next to land revenue, was the maximum revenue earner for the exchequer. There were fund provision for the State Forest officer but these were diverted off and on for other purposes. Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. D.C. Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, Shri C Padmanabh, Shri V Reddi were the forest officers prior to Shri RK Bijoychandra Singh, the local officer who became the State Forest officer (Later on, the Chief Forest Officer). Mr. Rowbotham and Kaith were appointed on temporary basis for assessing the forests and preparing a plan for working. Shri Hari Singh was in Manipur for a little over a year and got appointment as DCF in Bombay (Later, He became the Inspector General of Forests in the Central Government.) Shri V. Reddi was on tour to Jiribam when there were heavy Japanese bombings in Imphal and he could not come back, then he left for home from there. Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh, who was trained ranger (DDR 1937-39) was given charge, later appointed as State Forest officer. He was the first trained local officer. Note: Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh later became the Chief Forest Officer (CFO) of Manipur after the British period. He was the Head of Department for more than twentyfive years. B. Forest Protection : I. Forest Reservations done during British: The state used to keep a good chunk of land under reserved forests. The State Darbar was the highest administrative body and as state had control over the land, the reserved forests were created as per Darbar Resolutions. [edit] 4 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress The forests reserved in these days were Tolbung Reserved Forests, Kaimai Reserved Forests, Leijangphai Protected Forests, Jiri-makru Protected Forests, North Barak-Laikot Protected Forests, Kailam Protected Forests and Langol RF, Heinagang RF, Khema Chingjin to Nongrenching RF. Shri A. MacDonald was the PMSD in the year 1939 and he personally took a keen interest in the protection of forest and regulating the management. Majority of the Reserved Forests of the state were constituted during his tenure as the PMSD. The Kangbung, Longya, Yangenching, Sugnu are the Reserved constituted during his period. In fact about 60% of the Reserved Forests of the state were reserved during British Rule. Note: The Darbar used to give permits for taking out produces from Warok Reserve in Bishnupur District but the author could not trace out the date of constitution/declaring the reserve. Same is for the Konung Reserve, but for Konung Reserve, major portion has been dereserved in much later after independence for const. Prior to setting up of a separate Forest Department in 1931, the fund earmarked for forest management were mostly unutilized. In late 1890s and early 1900, only expenditure for forest protection and management was mostly for two reserves near Imphal (Langol and Heinagnag). II. The reserved forests were known as State Reserve or Forest Reserve during British Rule. The Indian Forest Act was not fully implemented during the British period inspite of passing in the State Darbar. These State Reserves or Forest Reserves are equivalent to Reserved Forests under Indian Forest Act in function and purpose and they are saved by the proviso under Sec. 4 of Part C State Laws Act, 1950. III. Declaring Tera (Simul) as State Tree: The Tera tree (Bombax ceiba) was declared as state tree as its fruit was quite important for the state. D. Forest Revenue : 1. Revenue Collection: Prior to 1891, revenue from forests was in the form of selling of tea seeds, India Rubber, Ivory, Agarwood etc. But since the British occupied the state, hectic negotiations went on for years for export of timber to British India, but due to heavy imposition of duty, the same could not be done. Some minor items like tea seeds, ivory, agar wood etc. were exported and timber to some extent. But the actual export of timber started only after 1898-99, when under an agreement with the Assam Forest Department, the DFO Cachar was allowed to work the forests on 25:75 revenue sharing basis. This constituted major part of forest revenue. This arrangement continued for quite a long time, and with this came the idea of forest acts and rules as the Assam Forest Regulation is the oldest and well framed forest law. The other sources of revenue were sale of Monopoly right to hill villagers, auction of toll stations, grass mahals, Chalmugra Mahal etc. The revenue from forest contributed on an average about 20% to the state exchequer. The internal revenue from forests contributed very little to the state revenue. The two small reserved forests near Imphal (Langol and Heingang) were maintained at an average expenditure of Rs. 500-600 for protection annually and the same was opened for collection of thatch grass, reed and dead wood for two-three months every year, but there is no record of any revenue in 1890s and early 1900s. Further, during 1897-98, the Administration Report recorded that the PWD uses 18000 cft of timber and 66000 cft of firewood but no royalty was paid. It was also noted that the state was the proprietor of forests. According to A. Porteus, the then Political Agent “Upwards of 18,000 cubic feet of pine wood, valued at Rs. 11,000, and 66000 cubic feet of firewood, for neither of which did the state as proprietor, received a single pice, were used during the year by the Public Works Department alone”. 1. Timber Species under trade: In the Gazetteer of Manipur published in 1905, Mr. B.C. Allen enumerated a few species of timber which were traded with British India. They are as follows: Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, tula, Bora, Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), and Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima). 3. Fixation of Royalty: Due to exporting major portion of timber from the state to Assam, where forest laws were in operation from very early days, the reasonable limit of royalty was known to the state authority since the early days. However, the sale was mostly through auction of fuel wood coupes, toll stations etc. Royalty was fixed from time to time by the Darbar as done in the Darbar Resolution No 10A of 1932 and others. The Darbar revised the rates of royalty vide Darbar Resolution No. 1 of 20.12.1933 for certain timbers and for that of bamboo. The rates of royalty were fixed once again under Darbar Resolution No. 8 of dated 6.9.1944. 2. Forest Revenue & Expenditure I. Sale of Mahals right from 1909. The firewood mahals were in operation in Langol and Heingang Hills. II. Export of Forest produces from Manipur to British India a. Rubber: Creation & Sale of Rubber b. Timber: Negotiation for exemption of cess of 4% from Jiri Borak Forests c. Forest Working through Cachar DFO on Revenue Sharing basis 75:25 [edit] 5 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress III. Revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests IV.Toll stations: setting up & putting into auction The Hill Office was created in the early 1930 and with this creation, certain forest areas were put to auction for collection of revenue, by creating mahals in the Assam Style, but there were certain difficulties in operating these mahals. The revenue collection was then through the toll stations opened near the foothills or just outside the town area of Imphal. Imphal toll stations were Sekmai, Sawombung, Kakching etc. These toll stations were mainly for collection of revenue from the forest produces brought to Imphal from the forests of the state other than the Jiri Barak Drainage Forests. The working of Burma Border Forests was under consideration for quite some time since the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation applied in 1912-13. The actual income from this aspect came only in 1915-16 and initially the revenue realized from this source was higher than that of the revenue received from the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests. In the year 1915-16, the revenue from Jiri Borak Forests was Rs. 11, 750/- against the revenue of Rs. 16, 816/-, realized from the Burma Border Teak Forests. However, as observed by Shri D. C. Kaith, there was a declining trend as may be seen from Assam Forest Administration Reports: It may clear from the figures of the following five years: 1899-1900 Rs. 14,998/- 1900-1901 Rs. 32971/- 1904-1905 Rs. 44,606/- 1927-28 Rs. 57,878/- 1928-29 Rs. 40,807/- 1929-30 Rs. 22,549/- 1930-31 Rs. 20595/- 1931-32 Rs. 8646/- But just after intervention of the state due to Shri Kaith’s report, there were a slow improvement in the revenue as may be seen from the records extracted from the Manipur Administration Reports. 1935-36 Rs 24,565/- 1936-37 Rs. 30,872/- Initially, the export from Jiri Borak Drainage Forests constituted major portion of revenue of Manipur. Later, the revenue from Burma Border Teak Forests also became quite a major part of forest revenue. Earlier, during pre British Period, there was not much source of revenue such as land revenue and hill house tax, the Kabo valley remittance and forest revenue mostly wild elephant sales, tea seeds, agar, ivory etc. constituted major revenue. For the state, the land revenue and hill house tax became more organized with the constitution of sub divisions based at Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Ukhrul etc. during British rule and this item overtook forest revenue as main contributor to the exchequer. E. Legal Powers: The Darbar had the law making powers: The Darbar Resolutions has the power of law. As such the Darbar yielded tremendous powers. The King on attaining major in the year 1907 was installed as the King and he became the president of the Darbar. But, majority of the powers remained with the Vice president who was a European. In 1916, an Englishmen was made the president, and Maharaja remained head, but just short of being a titular head. The Darbar Resolutions, the serious ones like imprisonment over five years requires HH the Raja’s confirmation in general, but some of the resolutions were put in to practice even without the confirmation of the Raja. Again, most of the serious issues were referred to the Political Agent, who if he felt necessary, was referred to the Governor General. Various other resolutions concerning Forests on regulation of Jhuming, extraction, hunting and game rules, fixing of royalty were passed by the Darbar. These resolutions were in fact, the backbone of forest management in the state and they had force of law. 3. Power of courts vested with the Darbar Member and Forest Officers The Darbar Member was vested with the powers of court to dispose of forest cases by acting as a court. The judgments were made appellable to the Appellate Court and to the Darbar. The passing of Indian Forest Act, 1927 for adoption in the year 1941 and 1945 did not change this arrangement . The Indian Forest Act was not much up to the likings of the Maharaja and did not get his accent. [edit] 6 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress In fact, the the Darbar was so adapted to the earlier system of disposal of the cases and as such, the newly adopted Act was seldom quoted in the later proceedings of the Darbar or the other courts till 1950, only after the Act was formally adopted under Section 4 of Part C Laws Act, 1950. F. Scientific Management: In fact, the first management plan of forests started in Travancore state in 1837 (by Munro) in simple prescription of quantum of felling in Teak forests. Dr. Brandis before he came to India, tried scientific management of forests in Pegu (Burma) in 1856. Later he became IGF in India and introduced scientific management in Indian Forests 1864, but due to its unique geographic location and topographic features, the scientific system of management prevalent in India in the early and mid nineteenth century with Sir Dr. D. Brandis did not reach Manipur. So, the management of history can be studied in two parts, the Pre-Kaith and Post Kaith period. (i) Pre Kaith Period (1891-1932) Due to lack of trained staff and due to the conditions of communication and socio economy, forest management was not given scientific touch. The first forest officer involved in the management of forest of the state was D.C. Kith, an officer from Himachal Pradesh taken on deputation in the year 1932. Shri Kaith was appointed by the president, Manipur State Darbar, Shri CWL Harvey (Capt. Harvey) and His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur. His appointment was approved vide Darbar Resolution No 3 of 6.6.1932. There were some British Forest Officers prior to Mr. Kaith. They were Mr. Rowbotham, Mr. AJW. Milroy etc., but Kaith’s Report was the most elaborate one. 1. Milroy’s Report: Earlier, prior to British rule, there were posts of Urungpurel in the court of the Kings but after British occupation, there were no mention of the post and there was no specific staff or system of forest management though the income from forests was major source of revenue. In 1910-11, Mr. Rowbotham reported on the forests of Manipur. Mr. AJW Milroy, a forest officer from Assam (who later became the Conservator of Forests) was assigned to work out a management plan. Initially, the plan of hiring him was submitted in 1913. But the Darbar considered that the plan was to expensive to implement and asked the Officiating Conservator of forests of Assam only for a plan for dividing forests in Borak Drainage Forests in to blocks for systematic extraction (DR No. 7 dated 4.6.13). Ultimately Shri Milroy was hired and submitted a report in 1914. His plan mostly contained the silvicultural aspects, regeneration and harvesting but the detail survey and inventorisation part was not given much importance. The Darbar agreed that the report of Milroy submitted in February, 1914 would need and European Officer in place of An Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests. The Darbar also agreed for payment to such an officer for this purpose. As the luck would have it, war broke out and the attention of the Political Agent and other British Officers was diverted to war. Another reason was that sivicultural activities would have cost dearly beyond the estimation by the state. But, there was a provision kept in the budget under the Head-Forestry for a long time which could not be spent, probably a suitable officer could not be appointed. The appointment of any dedicated staff did not take place for a long time even after the reports of Rowbotham and Milroy and till 1931 when the first Darbar Member known as Forest Member was appointed. 2. Appointment of Forest Member: The year 1931 seem to be a special year for the Department. The post of Forest Member came in to existence in the year 1931. The Darbar Member assumed charge on 1st November, 1931 and thus the Department came in to existence. This date has been regarded as birthday of the Department. The moves that the new Darbar Member made can be seen from the Darbar Resolutions passed on the 7th November and 14th November, 1931. From the Darbar Resolution No. 7 dated 14.11.1931, it is quite evident that the activities were stepped up as first step, the forest management of Langol and Heingang Reserves were made more systematic by dividing in to blocks (mahals) for systematic harvesting. [edit] 7 By Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress 3. Kaith’s Report: He was given first assignment to write about Manipur Forests specially of Jiri barak Drainage Forests which at present covers western Forest Division, Jiribam Forest Division and a portion of Tengnoupal Forest Division. The extreme emphasis given in these parts of the forests was due to its proximity to the mainland India and availability of water transport facility for the produces. Shri Kaith’s report was very comprehensive one and was taken as the foundation of forestry in Manipur. He recommended working of forests of Manipur based on four distinct units, the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, the Burma Border Forests, Forests overlooking the Imphal Valley and North and East Forests. Due to the heavy demand of forests produces from British India, the management suggested for Jiri Borak Drainage Forests was much more elaborate. Simultaneous with his survey works, the Darbar Resolution No 10A which is virtually the Forest Policy of the state was passed in 1032 and there were marked change in the concept of exploitation of forests. The four types of forests are envisaged in this policy are: State Reserve – to be put under strict state protection Valley Village Reserve- for the villages situated in the valley but depending on the forests in the nearby hills for meeting their requirements, Hill Village Reserve- Known as ¼ miles reserve to be maintained around each recognized village, Open Reserve- open for commercial and domestic requirement with permit. Besides, the Darbar also fixed rates of royalty realizable from the open reserves. Later on in subsequent years, the village chiefs were given the preference of buying back the mpnopoly right on payment of a very low payment of M. Fee as fixed by the Darbar. The importance of the Darbar Resolution No. 10A are as follows: 1. It was the first policy guideline for management of Forests in the state. 2. The state reserves was given top priority 3. Extraction was regulated and allowed on permit system 4. Realisation of royalty was introduced For regulating shifting cultivation and reducing its adverse impact on the forests of the state, the Darbar passed another resolution which says that for shifting cultivation, permission of the Manipur State Darbar or the Maharaja is required, but this could not be effectively implemented. After Kaith, Shri Hari Singh, another product of Edinburgh became the State Forest Officer. He stayed for one year in Manipur and he was followed by Shri C. Padmanabh. Shri Padmanabh worked till 1940. Next was Shri K.V. Reddy who stayed upto 1942. During this period, Shri L.M. Singh was the Darbar Member in Charge of Forests and it was during this period that the Indian Forest Act, 1927 was moved for adoption in Manipur with a few modifications. The Indian Forest Act was first moved for adoption in the year 1941 and later passed by the Darbar for adoption with amendments and modifications in 1945, but the Maharaja did not give his consent. After Shri Reddy, local officers came, Shri R.K. Bijoychandra Singh was the first local forest officer. (ii). Post Kaith Period (1933 – 1947): After Kaith’s Report was submitted in September, 1933, there were marked changes in the forest management of the state. Important landmark changes are: 1. Powers of Court given to Darbar Member 2. Block System for Selection System of Forestry 3. Introduction of exotics like Wattle, Gravillea, Taxodium, Mahogany etc. Other important recommendations of Mr. D.C. Kaith are as follows: 1. The State Forest Officer and Darbar Member were given the power to try Forest Offences. 2. Court of Appeal could hear appeals on forest offences 3. Recommended to follow Assam Style of working and Assam Forest Manual and Darbar take advice from Conservator of Assam on regular basis. 4. Resin tapping was identified as a source of revenue. 5. Called for more investment in forestry sector. 6. Timber blocks system was introduced for extraction of timber. 7. State should manage its own forests (the management of Jiri-Borak Drainage Forest was taken over in 1936) Classification of Products: The terms major and minor produces were introduced after the report of Kaith(1933). He termed timber as Major produce. The minor produces he defined are Grass, Firewood, orchids, pine wood splinters (pine torches), canes, tea seed, bee wax, deer horn etc. He proposed that the barks of Oaks, particularly Sahi Kuhi be used for tanning purposes. Actually, the major and minor forest produces have not been described even in the Indian Forest Act, 1927. G. Creation of Mahals: Certain Mahals were in operation during the period. The important mahals were the the Tea Seed Mahals, Agar Mahals, Chalmugra Mahals, Grass Mahals etc. The Grass Mahals continued to provide a steady Revenue as the requirement for housing was quite high, as thatch roofing was common means of roofing. Export selling of tea seeds and Agar Mahals continued since the pre British period on piecemeal basis, but only in later period of British period these were constituted in to mahals. Two Chalmugra mahals were created vide Darbar Resolution No. 12 of 8. 4.1936. The Seeds of Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) yield Chalmugra oil. The two mahals were one for the Jiri Borak Drainage Forests and other one for the rest of the state. These mahals were allowed to be leased out commencing from 1st April, 1936. The royalty was fixed at Rs. 1 per maund vide Darbar Resolution No. 8 dated 5.5.1936 on the recommendation of the Deputy Conservation of Forests. Regarding working of firewood, the coupe system was followed quite early in the Langol and Heingang Reserves. As for timber working, Shri Kaith recommended the division of forests into certain blocks for convenience in management. Accordingly, the Jiri-Barak Drainage Forests and adjoining Forests were divided into 19 (nineteen) timber blocks for proper management and extraction of the Forests. These blocks are all based on the watershed concept, and considering the period in which these were done, could be regarded as an advance system. Secondly, as in those days, water transport was the only one available, the watersheds draining into a major rivers such as Irang, Barak, Makru, Jiri, Ijei, Leimatak, Tipai etc. were taken as basis for dividing in to different timber blocks. Even today also, water is the only means of transport from the timber blocks M-IV, M-V, MXIV, M-XV etc. These units are by and large taken as management units of forests of these parts. [edit] 8 By : Akham Bonbirdhwaja Singh TheSangaiExpress H. Forest Composition: Watt (1888) divided the forests in to three vegetation zones, but the same has not been reflected in the writings of the authors of those times like B. C. Allen, Mc Kenzie and others. B.C. Allen (1905) gave a list of timbers that were much in demand in Surma Valley in early 1890s. These species have been covered in the listings done by Shri Kaith later. The Forest Type Classification of H.G. Champion (1935) was not much known to the forest administration of the princely state. According to Kaith, the forests was divided in to four types, the evergreen forests of Jiri Borak Drainage Forests, Imphal Valley Forests of Oak and Pine, North East Pine Forests and Burma Border Teak Forests. (i) Composition in Jiri Borak Forests (Local/common names as in Jiri & Cachar): Nageshwar, Jarol, Gondroi (Cinnamomum glanduliferum), Rata (Dysoxylum binectiferum), Kurta (Isonandra polyantha), Poma (Toon), Tula (Tetrameles nudiflora), Joki (Bischoffia javanica), Tailo (Castanopsis indica), Sundi (Michelia montana), Karal (Dipterocarpus sp), Jam, Ping (Nanap), Cham, Bora (Trewia nudiflora), Ramdala (Tal), Gamari, Jhalna (Terminalia bicolorata), Jinari (Podocarpus bracteata), Sutrong, Mishi, Caddum (Anthocephalus cadamba), Moroi (Albizzia odoratissima), Koroi (A. procera), Siris (A. stipulata), Cham (Artocarpus chaplasha), Chatni(Alstonia scholaris), Patri Chawan (Alseodaphne petiolaris) and Bamboos like Dolu, Pecha, Muli, Kala Sundi etc. Chalmugra (Hydnocarpus kurzii) was common fruit tree (Minor Forest Produce). (ii) Composition of Burma Border Forests: Khangra, Yangou, Toon, Larong ( Dillenia pentagyna), Laihidak, Jam, Kheu (Melanorrhoea usitata), Engelhardtia, Teak, (iii) Composition of forests around Imphal valley: Siris, Pareng, Tera, Chingthrau, Panggong (Butea monosperma), Tairel, Nanap, Lamuk (Cordia myxa), Heigri, Jam, Chorphon, Heitroi (Flacourtia catafracta), Wang, Heibung, Ushoi, Shahi, Thangji, orchids etc. I. Wildlife: During pre-British period, the wild life protection was given only some mentions, even the king had to pay some tribes for eliminate and kill dangerous animals like tigers. The Sangai, of course received royal protection. The country had its first game rules passed in 1916 under the stewardship of J.C. Higgins. Hunting of game animals was in existence since pre British period and this new rule sought to regulate hunting. It was later amended in 1931. J.C. Higgins wrote the book Game Birds and Animals of Manipur and he listed important birds and animals in his book in 1918. Regarding the birds, he has given an elaborate account dividing the book in to VI parts, but gave a brief account of animals confined in the last chapter. The birds were Geese, Ducks, Teals, Shoveller, Pochards, Snipes, Bustards, Plovers, Cranes, Terns, Coots, Jungle fowls, Burmese Peafowls, Partridges, Quails etc. Among the mammals, important ones are Elephant, rhinoceros, Bison, Mithun, Buffalo, Sabeng, Sambhar, Kharsa, Jungle Cat, Wild Dog, Jackal, Himalayan Black Bear, Malayan Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard etc. as cited by him. I. Regeneration of Forests: Till late stage of British rule, forest regeneration was not given any serious thought and no part of the money revenue was ploughed back to Forests though Kaith recommended 20% to be ploughed back. As a result the forests deteriorated quite seriously. Shri D.C. Kaith strongly cautioned the administration on this. Only after his report, there were remarkable changes in Forestry sector. Regeneration activities were taken up in the Langol RF, Heingang, RF, Kangchup RF, Jirimukh RF and many other RFs. Important species planted were Teak, Mahogany, Jarol, Pine etc. Side by side, introduction of exotics such as Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Grevillea, Jacaranda. Wattle etc. were also taken up. Remnants of those attempts of wattle were seen till a few years back in Tadubi and Ukhrul areas. Introduction of Wattle could be related to production of tannins which the PMSD and Political Agents thought could be used for tanning the hides of cattle to leather which could generate income. Sir James Johnstone tried orchards and vegetables in Kangchup areas. Conclusion: There were active evolution in forest management during British rule and all the major pillars of forest management like Framing of Game Rules, Constitution of Reserved Forest, Framing of Forest policy and adoption of Indian Forest Act (with modifications for the state) were taken up during period. However, considering that much more progress were made during this period in the mainland India in the field of scientific management, much more could have been done, because, the impact of forest management did not reach major parts of the state’s hilly region. The Darbar and King were not always happy with the European PAs and PMSDs. One or two examples of that can be seen in the Darbar Resolutions. A few of the decisions were against the general will of the members and king, but then it was colonial days, the fallout of that we are still experiencing.
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