Thysanoptera: India
Contents |
Faunal Diversity in India: Thysanoptera
This is an extract from FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN INDIA Edited by J. R. B. Alfred A. K. Das A. K. Sanyal. ENVIS Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1998 ( J. R. B. Alfred was Director, Zoological Survey of India) |
Introduction
The insects included under the order Thysanoptera popularly known as "thrips' or 'fringe-wings' or 'bladder-footed insects' are one of the smallest pterygote insects ranging from 0.5 mm to 10 mm. They possess remarkable structural peculiarities having fringe-wings, asymetrical feeding apparatus with right mandible vestigial and a portrusible bladder at the tip of tarsi. The order received little attention in the past by entomologists possibly because of its minute size and unattractive colouration. In the recent years thrips have assumed considerable importance as pests of variety of crops of agricultural and horticultural importance and some species are vectors of viral diseases. Majority of the species are phytophagous and remaining others usually Tubuliferans are mycophagous and a few species are predaceous. Several species, usually Tubuliferans produce and inhabit plant galls and thrips and remain protected from enemies and heavy rainfall. Thrips are associated with different types of vegetation and are considered to be very susceptible to environmental changes and can thrive only under particular climatic and microclimatic situation requiring proper condition of temperature and humidity. Thysanoptera have a wide distribution by often carried over to a small distance and also by human agency being transported through article of commerce.
Status Of The Taxon
Global Status
Thysanoptera are widespread throughout the globe with an abundance of tropical and subtropical species and many species are known from temperate zone and even a few species have been reported from Antarctica. The species from Nearctic and Palaearctic regions are characterised by more recent elements. Most gall-forming species are tropical and very common in Indo-Malaysia and Australia; others occur in Pacific Islands and Africa are few and also in Europe and America. At present eight families of Thysanoptera, viz., Uzelothripidae, Merothripidae, Aeolothripidae, Adiheterothripidae, Fauriellidae, Heterothripidae, Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae have been recognised. Approximately 6,000 species are known from the world.
Indian status
Out of eight families of Thysanoptera, five families Merothripidae, Aeolothripidae, Adiheterothripidae, Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae are represented in India. Altogether 693 species under 249 genera are known to occur in India and the family-wise break up is shown in Table -1. Table-l Diversity of Indian Thysanoptera Family Genera Species Aeolothripidae 10 18 Merothripidae 1 2 Adiheterothripidae 1 2 Thripidae 100 252 Phlaeothripidae 137 419 Total 5 249 693
Distribution
Thrips have a wide range of distribution throughout the country. Even a few species are reported from up to the snow limit of the Himalayas. A very large number of species are known to occur in some parts of the country, viz., South India, West Bengal, Delhi and parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Northeastern India and Himachal Pradesh due to intensive survey in these areas from thrips point of view. The distribution record of thrips in india from different geographical, regional and ecological zones is shown in Table -2.
Biological Diversity And Its Special Features
Thysanoptera possess remarkable structural diversity stimulated possibly due to fluctuations in habitat and internal environments. Although majority of thrips are phytophagous, a fairly large number of mycophagous Tubuliferans due to fungal feeding have a considerable strong impact on there biology, dispersal patterns, resulting in speciation. Most of the species are unicolourous bright, some bicolourous or tricolourous and others with a variety of shades. Cuticle shows striking patterns of scupItures in different genera and species taking the form of distinct polygonal reticulations, irregular corrugations and transverse striae or granulations. Sexual dimorphism is sometimes characteristic of antennal segments. Forelegs in both sexes show remarkable specialisation in possession of various degree of armature from setal clothing to strong bizarre teeth. Wings often vary inform and four types of wings, viz., macropterous, hemimacropterous, brachypterous and apterous forms are recognised. Sex limited polymorphism and presence of Oedymerous and Gynaecoid males are unique characteristic of the group. In the Oedymerous forms certain parts specially the size, forelegs and antennae are strikingly enlarged while in the Gynaecoid froms they are devoid of such anomalies and their body proportions much reduced and often resemble the females.
Endemic And Exotic Species
Endemic species in India Endemic species are abundant in Tropical and Ethiopian Regions. Majority of the species recorded from India is also endemic. Altogether 92 genera out of 249 genera and 520 species out of 693 species reorded from India are endemic and endemicity in Indian fauna constitutes about 38% and 74% of genera and species respectively. Family-wise break up of endemic species in India is shown in Table -3. Table-3 Number of endemic genera and species of Thysanoptera in India Genera Speicies
Exotic species in India
Apart from the presence of a fairly large number of endemic Indian thrips, there are a number of exotic species comprising Ethiopian, Malayan, Palaearctic, Nearctic and Cosmopolitan species. The regional break up of which is shown in Table -4. Table -4 Number of exotic genera and species in the families reported from
Value
Majority of thrips are phytophagous feed on cultivated crops and ornamental plants causing cosiderable damage and their ability to exploit suitable niches results in their increased damage potential. Although thrips are minute in size they make up by their numbers and their aggregate feeding causes severe damage to young leaves, flowers, buds and fruits. A number of species usually the Tubuliferans produce plant galls on variety of plants belonging to Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons and also some Monocotyledons. Some species of thrips are known to be vectors of viral diseases. Tomato Spotted Welt Disease and Pea Nut yellow Spotted Disease are transmitted by thrips and Tobacco Streak Virus enters its host plant through feeding punctures in the leaves by thrips. Thrips also cause Toxaemias in plants by toxin in saliva, bacterial and fungal diseases by contact and virus transmitted during feeding. Thrips play a role as natural control agents. A few species of predatory thrips feed on small soft bodied insects, aphid nymphs, psocids, scales, mites other thrips and even their own young ones. In recent times it is known that thrips play a role in pollinating specially where large insects are scare. Another benefical effect is their role in weed control. Few species of phytophagous thrips have been exploited to control weeds.
Selected References
Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1969. Indian 11lysanoptera. C.S.I.R. Zool. Monograph, 1 : 171 pp. Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1984. Bioecology of thrips. Indira Publishing House, Michigan, U.s.A. : 233 pp. Ananthakrishnan, T. N. & Sen S. 1980. Taxonomy of Indian Thysanoptera, Zool. SlIrv. India, Handbk. Ser., 1 : 234 pp. Bhatti, J. S. 1988. The orders Terebrantia and Tubulifera of the superorder Thysanoptera (Insecta), a critical appraisal. Zoology, 1 (2) : 167-240. Lewis, T. 1973. Thrips their biology, ecology and economic importance. Academic Press, London: 349 pp. Mound, L. A., Heming, B. S. & Palmer, J. M. 1980. Phylogenetic relationships between the families of recent Thysanoptera. Zool. J. Linn. Soc., 69 (2) : 111-141. Mound, L. A. & Palmer, J. M. 1983. The generic and tribal classification of spore¬ feeding thysanoptera (Phlaeothripidae : Idolothripinae). BIIII. Br. MilS. nat. Hist. (Enl.), 46 (1) : 1-174. Plamer, J. M., Mound, L. A. & Heaume, G. J. 1989. elE gllides to insects of importance to man. 2, 11Jysanoptera. CAB International Institute of Entomology, London: 73 pp. SEN: ThysflIlOplera Priesner. H. 1949. Genera Thysanopterorum. BIII/. Soc. Fouad Enl. Egypte. 33 : 159-174. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. & Margabandhu, V. 1940. Catalogue of Indian Insects. Part 25. rhysanoptera : 1-64. Wilson, T. H. 1975. A monograph of the subfamily Panchaetothripinae (Thysanoptera : Thripidae). Mem. Amer. Ent. Inst., 23 : 1-354.
Thysanoptera
This is an extract from |
Note: This article is likely to have several spelling mistakes that occurred during scanning. If these errors are reported as messages to the Facebook page, Indpaedia.com your help will be gratefully acknowledged.
Introduction
The insects included under order Thysanoptera, popularly known as thrips or fringe-wings or bladder-footed insects, are one of the smallest of pterygote insects, ranging in size from 0.5 mm to 10 mm. They possess remarkable structural peculiarities having fringe-wings, asymmetrical feeding apparatus with right mandible vestigial and a protrusible bladder at the end of tarsi. The order Thysanoptera received little attention in the past by entomologists, possibly because of its minute size and unattractive colouration. In recent years however, thrips have assumed considerable importance as pests of variety of crops of agricultural and horticultural importance and some species are carriers of viral diseases to a few commercial and food crops. Most of them are phytophagous, remaining others are mycophagous feeding on spores and fungal hyphae, and a few are predaceous feeding on other thrips, mites, whiteflies and coccids.
Classification
Haliday (1836) raised Thysanoptera to an order level, which included two suborders Terebrantia and Tubulifera. In a most recent classification Mound, Heming &Palmer (1980) have recognised 8 families as follows: Sub-Thysanoptera Suborder Terebrantia Family Uzelothripidae Mcrotluipidae Aeolothripidae Adiheterothripidae Fauriellidae Hetcrothripidar. Thripidae Suborder Tubulifcra Family Phlaeothripidae
Historical Resume
i) Pre-1900
The first ever work on Indian Thysanoptera dates back to 1856 when Newman described two new species of Tubulifera, Phlaeothrips anacardii and ldolothrips halidayi from Mysore.
ii) 1901-1947
The studies on Indian Thysanoptera began rather late compared to other group of insects. The contributions of Bagnall (1913-1926), Hood (1919), Moulton (1927-1929) Ramakrishna Ayyar (1925-1935); Ramakrishna Ayyar &Margabandhu (1931-1939) and Shumsher (1942-1947) made the foundatioQ of thrips studies in India, paving the way for extensive work later. Kieffer (1908) described one new gall fonning species. Bagnall (1913a, 1913b, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1918a, 1918b, 1919, 1921a, 1921b, 1923, 1924a, 1924b and 1926) publisb.ed a series of papers, mostly in Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. and added 35 new species. Vuillet (1914) described one new species. Williams (1915) ~escribed one new species, Stenchaetothrips biformis (Bagnall) [=Thrips oryzae Williams], considered to be a very serious pest of rice in whole of South East Asia. Hood (1919) described 5 new species. Karny (1926) published the fIrst comprehensive account of Indian Thysanoptera and described 19 new species. Ramakrishna Ayyar is the pioneer worker on Indian Thysanoptera, who started exhaustive collection of thrips and used to send the material to specialists abroad for identification and thus, built up the first reference collection of thrips in India. Also he himself contributed a number of papers in (1925, 1932, 1934, 1935) and described 10 new species.
Finally in (1928), he published the monograph of Indian Thysanoptera in which he has provided morphology, life history, key to genera and species, besides describing 26 new species, and thus recorded altogether 126 species from India. Moulton (1927, 1928, 1929a, 1929b) described 11 new species. Ramakrishna Ayyar and Margabandhu (1931, 1935, 1939a, 1939b) described 25 new species. Priesner (1935) described one new species. Ramakrishna Ayyar.and Margabandhu.(1940) compiled the catalogue of Indian Thysanoptera where 232 species under 94 genera.have been recorded. Shumsher Singh (1942, 1944, 1947) described 5 species, and finally in 1945 published the monograph of the Suborder Terebrantia, where he has provided the key to the genera and species; described 2 new genera, 6 new species and recorded altogether 105 species.
iii) 1948-1990
The significant contributions on Indian Thysanoptera were made during this period. The-knowledge on the group has been greatly enriched by the contributions of Ananthakrishnan (1949¬1990) and Bhatti (1961-1990), the two very eminent authorities on this group. Priesner (1952) added 6-new species. Priesner and Seshadri (1952) added 3 new species. Margabandhu and Ananthakrishna (1953) in the supplement to the catalogue recorded 37 species (Thripidae 27 species; Phlaeothripidae -10 species). Seshadri and Ananthakrishna (1954) described 7 new species.
Ananthakrishnan conducted intensive survey with special emphasis to South India, and built up a good'reference collection of Indian and foreign species. Although Ananthakrishnan worked on the whole order in the beginning, subsequently he concentrated mostly on the suborder Tubulifera. Ananthakrishnan (1949-1990) published a large number of papers and altogether described 55 new genera and 179 new species, besides recording a number of species and genera for the fJIst time from India. Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish (1966-1971) in a number of papers described 54 species. Ananthakrishnan and his other collaborators: Kudo (1974), Muraleedharan (1974), Swaminathan (1980), Varadarasan (1978), Viswanathan (1975) have brought to light another 14 species. Ananthakrishnan (1963) revised the Indo-Ceylonese Terebrantia and published the monograph of Indian Tubulifera (1964). He (1969) published the book, Indian Thysanoptera, in which he has dealt with morophology, bionomics, polymorphism and provided a key to genera &list of valid species.
Ananthakrishnan and Sen (1980) published a Hand Book on Taxonomy ofIndian Thysanoplera, where they have provided the taxonomic criteria, keys to families, subfamilies, genera and species, analysis of distribution and host -plants of various species, and recorded altogether 248 genera and 647 species (Aeolothripidae -18 species; Merothripidae -3 species; Heterothripidae -2 species; Thripidae -237 species; Phlaeothripidae -387 species).
Bhatti began his studies on thrips in the Zoological Survey of India, Desert Regional Station, and Central Regional Station at Jodhpur &Jabalpur, and after leaving ZSI he worked at Hans Raj College, Delhi. Bhatti.concentrated his studies mostly on the suborder Terebrantia. He (1961-1990) published a number of papers and described altogether 29 genera and 90 species, besides studying a •number of genera, the details of which were dealt in reviSionary studies. Bhatti and Hatter (1974) described one new species, and Bhatti and Ananthakrishnan (1975, 1978) added 4 new species. Stannard and Mitri (1962) described one new species and Stannard (1970) added one new species. Wilson (1972) added «;>ne; Pitkin (1976) added one; Okajima (1981, 1987) described four and Kulshrestha &Vijay Veer (1984) described two new species.
In the Zoological Survey of India, the studies of thrips were taken up by Sen and Muraleedharan who concentrated on thrips of North-Eastern India. Sen (1976, 1977, 1978), Sen & Muraleedharan (1977), Muraleedharan (1982), Muraleedharan &Sen (1978, 1981a, 1981b) described 2 new genera and 22 new species. Sen et a1. (1988) compiled a monograph on lbysanoptera Fauna of 'North-Eastern India recording 105 species under 65 genera. Sen (1980) studied thrips from Andaman Islands and described two new species, and (1982) studied thrips fauna from Silent Valley, Kerala and added 2 new species. Sen, Pramanik &Sengupta have studied the lbysanoptera fauna ofWest Bengal, which is under publication.
Lakshminarayan (1962) studied thrips collection from Western and Southern India. Varshney (1970) studied thrips fauna of Shillong (Meghalaya). Thakur et ale (19738, 1973b) studied thrips of Solan (Himachal Pradesh). Rao &Kamble (1975) studied thrips of Marathawade (Maharashtra). Jagadish &Ananthakrishnan (1972) studied the second, instar larvae of some Indian.Terebrantia and provided a key to genera David and Ananthakrishnan (1973) studied the second instar larvae of Indian gall thrips and provided a key to genera.
Revisionary studies on a number of genera were under taken in this period the details ,of which are as follows: Bhatti (1964) studied the genus Aeolothrips (Family Aeolotbripidae). Bhatti &Ananthakrishnan (1975) studied the genus Merothrips (Family Merothripidae). Under the family Tbripidae, Sakimura &Ananthakrishnan .(1962) have revised the Indian species of Chaetanaphothrips; Ananthakrishnan &Jagadish (1966, 1967a, 1967b) studied the genera Thrips, Chloethrips, and Taeniothrips; Bhatti (1968-1982) studied the genera Helionoehrips, Megalurothrips, Dendrothrips, Caliothrips, Ascirtothrips, Projectothrips, Caprithrips, Exothrips, Perissothrips, Sericothrips and Anaphothrips of the Oriental Region; Mound (1976) stodied Dichromothrips on old world Orchidaceae; Mound &Palmer (1981) studied pest species of Scirtothrips; Pitkin (1977) revised the genus Chaetanaphothrips; Wilson (1975) published the monograph of Panchaetothripinae of the world; Vijay Veer &Chauhan (1983) studied the genus Arathrips. Under the family Phlaeothripidae, Ananthakrishnan (1969-1976) studied the genera Polyphemothrips, Lee'uwenia, Nesothrips, Stigmothrips, Elaphrothrips, Mesothrips, Crotonothrips; Ananthakrishnan &Kudo (1974) revised the genus Xenothrips; Ananthakrishnan &Muraleedharan (1974) studied the Gynaikothrips -Liophlaeothrips -Uothrips complex; Mound (1972, 1974) studied the genus Allothrips and spore feeding Nesothrips complex; Mound and Palmer (1983) studied the generic and tribal classification of spore-feeding Idolothripinae; Ritchie (1974) stu4ied the genus Podothrips; Pitkin (1976) studied the Indian 'species of Haplothrips, Antillothrips and Xylaplothrips. Haga (1975) studied the genus Pyrgothrips and provided a key to species of world. Okajima (1979, 1987) studied the genera ApelaW!Othrips and old world species of Holothrips; Okajima (1981) revised the fungus feeding tribe Plectrothripini.
Studies from Different Environs
Mycophagous thrips : Ananthakrishnan (1969-1972) published the serial publication Mycophagous Thysanoptera Parts I-IV and gave a comprehensive account (1973)'dealing with geneza1 ecology, intraspecific sex-limited diversity, patterns of oedymerism, besides provided keys to the genera and species and recorded 135 species.
Gall thrips : Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish (1969) have compiled the monograph of Indian gall thrips, where they have provided generic &specific keys and recorded 81 species. Subsequently Ananthakrishnan (1968, 1971, 1972) added another 19 species. Ananthakrishnan (1978) published the monograph Thrips galls and Gall thrips, where he dealt with the major gall types, morphology 'of thrips galls and provided keys to the genera ef gall thrips of the world, along with list of gall thrips genera and alphabetical index of gall thrips species along with their hosts.
EcoloBY : The most significant work on different aspects of ecology of Indian thrips was undertaken by Ananthakrishnan and his associates in Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Madras and published a large number of papers. Ananthakrishnan (1984) published his monumental work Bioecology of thrips as an outcome of his intensive stucties for a long peri04 where he dealt at length the thrips communities, thrips and agroecosystem, reproductive strategies along with life cycles, ecology of gall and mycophagous thrips, thrips and natural con1ro1 agents, thrips and host-plant interactions, etc. Kulshrestha & Srinivasan (1985), Kulshrestha, et. ale (1982, 1983) Srivastava et. al. (1983), Vijay Veer et. al. (1983) have studied the ecology of thrips of Doon Valley (U.P.).
Biology : Lal &Sinha (1968) studied the biology of Thrips tabaci. Dev (1964) studied the biology of Scirtothrips dorsalis on tea in Assam. Jagota (1961) studied the life history of Microcephalothrips abdominalis. Raizada (1965) studied the life history of Scirtothrips dorsalis with detailed external morphology of immature stages. Visalakshi &Joseph (1967). studied the biology of Gynaikothris karnyi. Srivastava & Vijay Veer (1983) studied the life history of Lejroyothrips lefroyi. Joshi (1974) studied the biology of Stictothripsjimbriata. Ananthakrishnan (1987, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c)" studied the oocyte follicle cell dynamics in Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae. Ananthakrishnan et ale (1983) studied the reproductive strategies and behavioural attributes of some sporophagous ldolothripinae. Ananthakrishnan et ale (1984) studied ecological interactions, species dynamics and reproductive biology of some mycophagous thrips. Viswantahan & Ananthakrishnan (1973) studied the biology, ecology and behaviour of Ecacanthothrips libialis and in another paper (1973) studied the partial ovoviviparity in Tiarothrips subramanii.
Control : In recent years thrips have attracted the attention of agricultural and applied entomologists to work on the control aspects of thrips, due to their damage potential. Birat (1968), La! &Sinha (1968), Pandey (1971), Pat~l &Patel (1967), Rathore et. a'l.-(1970) Reddy &, Jagadish (1980), Saxena (1975), Singh & Sidhu (1959) and Verma (1966) studied the control of cotton and onion thrips, Thrips tabaci. Other studies are : Rangarajan et. ala (1973), Reddy &, Jagadish (1980) on "chillies thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis;" N. R. Ananthakrishnan (1963) on biology and control of Scirtothrips bispinosus;"Chaudhari &Ramjan (1971) on Haplothrips ganglbaueri on paddy; Lal & Pillay (1980) on Retithrips syriacus on <;assava; Muraleedharan and.I{andaswamy (1980) on tea thrips; Pillai & Abraham (1978) on Cardamom thrips, Sciothrips cardamomi; Sandhu et al. (1974) on Anaphothrips sudanensis on ~aize; Santhanaraman (1965) on Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus on rose; Thimmaiah & Panchbhavi (1973) on Heliothrips indiclU on groundnuL
Ananthakrishnan (1973 published a book Thrips biology and control where the has dealt in detail ecology, life cycles, feeding mechanisms and nature of injuries, major and minor thrips pests and their control, role of thrips in gall formation and plant disease transmission.
Surveys
Intensive survey of thrips fauna have been conducted in South India, West Bengal, Delhi and pw:ts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, U.P., N.E. India and Himachal Pradesh. Our knowledge of thnps fauna of Western, Eastern, North Western and North Eastern India is me8gre, and intensive surveys are needed in respect of mycophagous and gall inhabiting fonns.
Estimation of Taxa
Mound, Heming & Palmer (1980) and Palmer eta a1.(1989) have recognised eight families of Thysanoptera: Uzelothripidae, Merothripidae, Aeolothripidae, Adiheterothripidae, Fauriellidae. Heterothripidae, Thripidae, Phlaeothripidae, out of which five are represented in India leaving out three (Uzelothripidae, Faureillidae &aeterothripidae). Approximate 6000 species of thrips are known from the world, out of which 691 species under 250 genera are reported from India. The
In the Zoological Survey of India, research o~ taxonomy of Thysanoptera of Meghalaya, revision and updating of Hand Book, and preparation of a bibliography of Indian Thysanoptera covering various aspects are in progress.
In the Entomological Research Institute, Loyola College, Madras a team of research workers under the guidance of Prof. T. N. Ananthakrishnan is engaged in studies on the aspects of ecobehaviour and bio-systematics, sensory perCeption and host location, biochemical parameters in relation to host-plant preference, thrips-crop-weed interactions relating to economically important crops; and cecidology and thrips and their role in pollination.
In Hans Raj'College, Delhi, J. S. Bhatti is engaged in studies on systematics with special reference to taxonomic revisionary work and classification.
Expertise India
In ZSl
S. Sen, N. K. Pramanik, C. K. Sen Gupta, all of ZSI, M-Block, New Allpur, Calcutta 700053. R. H. Kamble, ZSI, Eastern Regional Station, Risa Colony, Shillong -793003.
Elsewhere
T. N. Ananthalaishnan, Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Madras -60Q034. J. S. Bhatti, Hans Raj College, New Delhi -110007.
Abroad
A. Boumier, 10 Rue Abert, 3400 Montpellier (France) R. zur Sttasseo, Forschungsinstitut Senkenberg, Senkenberglarge 25, D-6000, Frankfurt am Main (Gennany). L. A. Mound &, Dr. (Mrs.) J. M. Palmer, Department of Entomology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, Lpndon SW'7 5 BD (U. K.) K. Sakimura, 1834 Betram Stteet, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816 (U.S.A.). Han Yun Fa, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Haitien, Beijing (China) I. Kudo, Shizuoka Seiko Gakuin High School, Oshika, Shizuoka -422 (Japan) S. Okajima, Entomological Laboratory, Tokyo University' of Agriculture, Sakuragaoka, Setagaya -Iu, Tokyo -156 (Japan) C. F. Jacot -Guillarmod, Albany Museum, Grahams Town (South Africa)
Selected References
Ananthakrishnan. T. N. 1969. Indian Thysanoptera. ~.SJ.R. Zool. MOllDgraph.l : 171 pp. Aftanthakrishnan. T. N. 1984. Bioecology of thrips. Indira Publishing House. Michigan. U.S.A. :
233 pp. Ananthakrishnan, T. N. &Sen S.1980. Taxonomy of Indian Thysanoptera. Zool. Surv. India, Handbk. Ser., 1 : 234 pp. Bhatti, J. S. 1988. The orders Terebrantia and Tubulifera of the superorder 1bysanoptera (Insecta). a critical appraisal. -Zoology, 1 (2) : 167-240. Lewis, T. 1973. Thrips their biology, ecology and economic importance. Academic Press, London : 349 pp. Mound, L. A., Heming, B. S. &Palmer, J. M. 1980. Phylogenetic relationships ~tween the families of recent Thysanoptera. Zool. J. LiM. Soc., 69(2) : 111-141. Mound, L. A. &Palmer, J. M. 1983. The generic and tribal classification of spore-feeding Thysanoptera (phlaeothripidae : Idolothripinae). Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Ent.), 46(1) : 1-174. Palmer, J. M; Mound, L. A. & Heaume, G. J. 1989. CIE guides to insects o/importance to man.
2. Tltysanoptera. CAB International Institute of Entomology, London: 73 pp. Priesner, H. 1949. Genera Thysanopterorum. Bull. Soc. Fouad Ellt. Egypte, 3~: 159-174. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. &Margabandhu, V. 1940. Catalogue of Indian Insects. Part 25. Thysanoptera: 1..64.
Wilson, T. H. 1975. A monograph of the subfamily Panchaetothripinae (Thysanoptera : Thripidae). Mem. Amer. Ent. Inst .• 23 : 1-354.
