Upanishads
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The Ten Principal Upanishads (1937)
Shree Purohit Swami and WB Yeats
Arjun Sengupta, June 24, 2023: The Indian Express
The Ten Principal Upanishads, translated from Sanskrit by Shri Purohit Swami, a scholar of Hindu scripture, and Irish poet WB Yeats, is considered to be one of the best translations of the Upanishads, some of the most important Hindu religious texts. Written in the mid-1930s, the book was a product of Yeats’ desire to create a translation which is true to the original text while still being accessible for the layperson.
“[A] translation that would read as though the original had been written in common English”, Yeats wrote in the preface of the original.
What are the two categories of Hindu scriptures?
There are broadly two categories of Hindu sacred texts: shruti (loosely translated as “the revealed”) and smriti (“the remembered”). The first category is considered to be the most authoritative and consists of the four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) and accompanying texts. These include Brahmanas (ritual texts), Aranyakas (“forest” or “wilderness” texts), and Upanishads (philosophical texts).
The second category of Hindu scriptures is less authoritative – in many ways they are considered to be derived from the first – but more popularly known. These include the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, Dharmashastras, Puranas and all other post-Vedic scriptures.
What are the Upanishads?
The Upanishads, also known as the Vedanta – as they signal the end of the total Veda – speculate about the ontological connection between humanity and the cosmos. They serve as foundational texts in many traditions of Hindu theology and have hence attracted far more attention than the Vedas themselves.
Dated to roughly 800-500 BC, the Upanishads discuss concepts such as transmigration, which have today become central to Hindu tradition.
As per the Chandogya Upanishad, “Those whose conduct here has been good will quickly attain a good birth [literally,’womb’], the birth of a brahman, the birth of a kshatriya, the birth of a vaishya. But those whose conduct here has been evil, will quickly attain an evil birth, the birth of a dog, the birth of a hog or the birth of a Chandala.” (translated by S Radhakrishnan). The Upanishads were given particular importance in Hindu theology by eighth century Hindu scholar Adi Shankara, whose interpretations synthesised the Advaita Vedanta tradition. This is a non-dualistic philosophy that has in modern times, under philosophers such as Swami Vivekananda and S Radhakrishnan, become the most dominant force in Hindu intellectual thought.
This philosophy emphasises on the illusory nature of the transient phenomenal world around us, and puts forth the idea that the brahman is the only and ultimate real. Much of the Upanishads, in fact, are concerned with the relationship between the atman, or the distinct, unchanging self of an individual, and the brahman, the ultimate reality in the universe.
There are ten main (or principal) Upanishads:
Esha
Kena
Katha
Prashna
Mundaka
Mandukya
Taittiriya
Aitareya
Chandogya
Brihadaranyaka
Who was WB Yeats?
William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) is one of the most influential figures in modern English literature.
“WB Yeats is among the foremost modern poets in English and the most globally recognisable Irish poet of the 20th century,” Dr Munish Tamang, Associate Professor of English at Motilal Nehru College, Delhi University, told The Indian Express. Influenced by the likes of John Keats and William Wordsworth, Yeats’ work was spread across decades and covered a multitude of themes. While some of his poetry provided insightful political and social commentary, other poems were more esoteric.
He was central to what has been termed as the Irish Literary Revival and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923 “for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation”.
Why was WB Yeats interested in the Upanishads?
WB Yeats’ interest in the Upanishads predates The Ten Principal Upanishads by decades.
As a young adult, Yeats met Mohini Chatterjee, a prominent figure in Bengal’s burgeoning Theosophical circles, when the latter visited Dublin in 1885. After this meeting, Yeats wrote three poems (published in 1889) that refered to India: ‘The Indian to his Love’, ‘The Indian upon God’, and ‘Anushuya and Vijaya’.
However, WB Yeats’ connection to India is perhaps best seen in his friendship with Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore and Yeats met for the first time in 1912, at the home of photographer William Rothenstein. Rothenstein had previously sent Yeats the manuscripts of Tagore’s partial translation of Gitanjali – manuscripts which floored Yeats.
“These lyrics — which are in the original, my Indians tell me, full of subtlety of rhythm, of untranslatable delicacies of colour, of metrical invention — display in their thought a world I have dreamed of all my life long. The work of a supreme culture, they yet appear as much the growth of the common soil as the grass and the rushes”, Yeats would write in his introduction to Tagore’s Nobel prize-winning collection of poems.
“His association with Rabindranath Tagore is well known and his introduction to Gitanjali was important in bringing the text to the notice of western audiences,” Dr Tamang said. “The Ten Principal Upanishads is a jointly translated work which Yeats took on due to his long-running interest in India” he added.
As Yeats himself writes in the book’s preface, “For some forty years my friend George Russell (A.E.) has quoted me passages from some Upanishad, and for those forty years I have said to myself — someday I will find out if he knows what he is talking about.”
In fact, Yeats even bought available translations (he only knew English), but was left underwhelmed by the quality of these translations. “Could latinised words, hyphenated words; could polyglot phrases, sedentary distortions of unnatural English … could muddles, muddied by ‘Lo! Verily’ and ‘Forsooth’, represent what grass farmers sang thousands of years ago, what their descendants sing today?” Yeats writes.
Thus, when he met scholar Shri Purohit Swami, who had travelled “the length and breadth of India” prior to journeying to Europe in 1930, Yeats pitched the idea to translate the Upanishads, not for learned polyglots and orientalists, but for lay people.
The Consciousness Principle
Pranav Khullar, June 11, 2019: The Times of India
The nature of consciousness is a seminal theme at the heart of Upanishadic thought. The Taittiriya Upanishad explores the fivefold sheath of human consciousness, the koshas: annamaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnamaya and anandamaya – the physical, vital, mental, intellectual and causal layers of human individuality. The Mandukya Upanishad lays out the four states of consciousness – jagrat, svapna, susupti and turiya – in terms of our waking, dreaming, dreamless sleep state, and pure consciousness. The Aitereya Upanishad outlines how Brahmn itself may be defined as Consciousness.
Reflecting deeply on the nature of human and transcendental consciousness, the Aitereya begins by stating that Atman is the only reality. It then outlines how this First Principle created the universe in stages, beginning with the creation of space-time and crystallising its essence in the shape of human beings, finally. The Aitereya draws attention to how the human body is the prime manifestation of the atman, perhaps also alluding to the fact that we need to understand our inner cosmic nature. “Who Am I?” The classic question of the Upanishads is first asked in the Aitereya, urging us to realise that human beings are more than the sensory organs, and more than the mind.
Man is atman, actually.
The Aitereya then touches upon the theme of how this atman further sustains itself by procreation and nurturing of family, by metaphorically outlining how the Atman is born thrice in a human – first, when a child is conceived through shedding of the seed in the womb; second, when the child is born and the parents nurture the child to adulthood; and third, at the time of death. He takes on another body as determined by his karma, his third birth.
The Aitereya elucidates that though this is the reality of the empirical world, we have to simultaneously understand that this created, worldwide web of samskara, is only a projection, not real. We need to understand the First Principle behind the mystery of birth and rebirth, behind this endless cycle of samskara and karma.
The Upanishad then draws us back into a reflection of what the atman is and points out that consciousness itself is the atman. Absolute Consciousness itself has become the world of multiplicity, yet it does not become those multiple selves that are only gross and subtle layers of consciousness that correspond to our psychological and mental state of being. Although these may seem real and intense to an individual, as he experiences those states, all these layers are subsumed within Prajanam, Pure Consciousness.
The Mandukya defines Pure Consciousness as Turiya, the immeasurable, something akin to samadhi in yogic terms. The Aitereya Upanishad defines it in its concluding line, the Mahavakya, as Prajanam Brahmn, Pure Consciousness. The seeker is required to begin with an inquiry into the consciousness of mind and body, and peel back those layers of consciousness with which one has covered consciousness of Self. Consciousness as Prajanam reminds us to see the empirical world as it truly is, as only one relative part of a larger Consciousness. The seeker is to strive for that state of Pure Consciousness where one would experience the immanence of Brahmn, not just intellectually grasp it.
Details: Pure Consciousness
Pranav Khullar, The Aitereya Upanishad On Pure Consciousness, February 5, 2020: The Times of India
The nature of Consciousness is a seminal theme at the heart of Upanishadic thought. The Taittiriya Upanishad explores the fivefold sheath of human consciousness, the koshas – annaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnamaya and anandamaya, that is, the physical, vital, mental, intellectual and causal layers – of human individuality. The Mandukya Upanishad lays down the four states of consciousness – jagrat, svapna, susupti and turiya, that is, our waking, dreaming, dreamless sleep state and pure consciousness. In the same vein, the Aitereya Upanishad outlines how Brahmn itself may be defined as Consciousness.
Reflecting deeply upon the nature of human and transcendental consciousness, the Aitereya begins by stating that Atman is the only reality. In the beginning was the Atman only, the first cause and principle, before creation itself. The Aitereya outlines how this First Principle created the universe in stages, beginning with space-time and crystallising its essence in the shape of the human being, finally. The Aitereya draws attention to how the human body is the prime manifestation of Atman, alluding to the fact that we need to understand our inner cosmic nature. “Who Am I?”
The classic question of the Upanishads is first asked in the Aitereya, urging us to realise that we are more than merely our sensory organs and mind, for we are Atman, actually.
How does the Atman sustain itself ? By procreation and nurturing family, by metaphorically outlining how the Atman is born thrice in a human – first, when a child is conceived through seeding the womb, second, when the child is born and parents nurture the child to adulthood like themselves and thirdly, at the time of death, the human takes on another body, as determined by his karma, his third birth. Through outlining the three births which the soul takes, the Aitereya elucidates that this created worldwide web of samskara is only a projected one, so is not actually real.
The Aitereya Upanishad then draws us back into a reflection of what the Atman is and points out that Consciousness itself is Atman. Absolute Consciousness has become the world of multiplicity. Yet, has not become those multiple selves that are only various gross and subtle layers of consciousness that correspond to our psychological and mental states of being. Though these may seem real and intense to an individual as he experiences those states, all these layers are subsumed within Prajanam, Pure Consciousness.
While the Mandukya defined Pure Consciousness as Turiya, the immeasurable, something like samadhi in yogic terms, the Aitereya Upanishad defines it in its concluding Mahavakya, as Prajanam Brahmn, Pure Consciousness dwelling within the body, but not the body, triggering the cognitive process of mind, but not the mind, lighting up each sensory and cognitive faculty, but not that faculty. The seeker is required to begin with an enquiry into the consciousness of mind and body and peel back those layers of consciousness with which one has covered the consciousness of Self.
Consciousness as defined in this concept of Prajanam reminds us to see the empirical world as it truly is, as only one relative part of a larger Consciousness and the seeker is to strive for that state of Pure Consciousness where one would experience the immanence of Brahmn and not just intellectually grasp it. (The writer is joint secretary, Government of India)
Success through prayer
The Times of India, Aug 11 2016
Swami Dayananda Saraswati
Traditionally, both teacher and student pray together before beginning the study of any Upa nishad. Every Upanishad has a shantipatha, a prayer invoking peace, in the beginning. Any new undertaking whether building a house, writing a book or studying a text begins with a prayer. A prayer is said to invoke Divine Grace and to overcome obstacles. The success of an undertaking requires three factors prayatna, kala and daiva. Prayatna is well-directed, adequate effort, your commitment to the pursuit. You must persevere and continue to be with the pursuit until it is accomplished. This perseverance is prayatna. Kala is time, an important factor in the successful completion of an undertaking because everything does not happen instantly .
The third factor is daiva, an unknown factor. Unlike prayatna and kala you have no control over daiva. An undertaking does not succeed just because you put in effort and time.There could be many obstacles in the way of accomplishing the goal; you may not be able to totally overcome all of them. Our knowledge is very limited. You cannot visualise all possible obstacles to be avoided. Even if you do, you either do not have the power to overcome these obstacles, or the power you have is not adequate. The result of an undertaking is not predictable.This is daiva. You may call it law of karma, chance, luck, God or whatever, but you recognise that there is an unknown factor that makes the difference between success and failure.
Daiva may be called chance, something you cannot control. If you can control it, then it is not chance; it is a manageable fact. Though you cannot control chance, you can take it into account and do something to make it favourable, in which case you are not that helpless; you can be hopeful. This hope has a basis. Hope is not based on your knowledge of what is happe ning or what will happen and so on; it is based on prayer. It is prayerful hope to avoid hel plessness. If you acknowledge the existence of this factor, then you are objective; otherwise you are in a helpless situation. You are in for disappointment.
You would call yourself a failure saying, “I am defeated all and smothered by situations. I the time and smothered by situations. I have no control over anything.“ By being objective you discover strength within.
The objectivity here is, “I have some resources, talents and knowledge. With all these, i plan for a particular thing to happen, but there is always one factor over which i have no control. I say a prayer to have that factor in my favour.“
When you say a prayer you are pragmatic. You know that you cannot call all the shots. When you do not call all the shots, naturally , you take into account the daiva factor and say a prayer to help control hidden variables.
This prayer, meaningful for the occasion, is a specific prayer. When you pray in general, without a specific purpose, it is a broad-spectrum prayer.There are specific prayers too, for every season, problem and disease, for instance. But like the intake of medicine, mere prayer does not do the job. Prayer is to make daiva favourable. You have to make adequate effort for a length of time to make the undertaking successful.
