View source for Hyderabad State, Agriculture 1908

 {| class="wikitable"        
|-
|colspan="0"|<div style="font-size:100%">
This article has been extracted from <br/>

THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908.<br/>	

OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS.
</div>
|} 
[[Category:India|H]]
[[Category:Places|H]]
''Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts. Some units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value. ''
 
==Agriculture==

The soils of the Hyderabad State may be divided into two main 
divisions. Those of all the Telingana Districts may be classed gener- 
ally under three kinds, black, red, and sandy; and 
those in the Maratha Districts may be similarly 
classed in three divisions, black, red, and a mixture of the two. 
Locally, a number of varieties are distinguished in Telingana. Thus, 
utcha regar is dark in colour and plastic when wetted, and consists 
chiefly of alluvium, with a good supply of lime and little silica. Katta 
regar is a stiff loam, containing less lime than utcha regar and little 
soluble matter. Raura is a good garden soil, containing 7 per cent. of lime in a pulverized state. Rauti zamm is also a garden soil, 
containing only 5 per cent, of lime. So/a zamin is greyish in colour, 
and resembles rauti zam'in. It is used for the ahi rice crop, and is 
manured by herding cattle, goats, and sheep on it. Chunaka regar 
is a rough aluminous soil, containing 12 per cent, of lime, and is best 
suited for Jowdr and pulse. Chauka regar or milwa is a mixture of 
red and black soils, with very little lime. Chalka or rcva zaml?i is 
a finely pulverized reddish soil, with sand and traces of lime, and is 
well suited for rainy season crops. Yerra chauka is similar in every 
respect to chalka zann?i, but not so finely powdered. The Marathwara 
soils are called ngar (black), masab (red), or mihva (mixture). The 
soils of the higher tracts are heavy and rich in alumina, wliile those 
found on the plains are light and loamy ; but neither is of very great 
depth. Broadly speaking, they are derived from the disintegration of 
basalt and amygdaloid wacke, the former giving rise to the stiff black 
soil, and the latter forming a friable earth. But when the black soil 
is mixed with the light friable earth, the result is a rich loam, which 
is more retentive of moisture than the others. 

The climate of the Maratha Districts is generally hot and dry from 
March to the end of May, and temperate during the remaining months ; 
while that of Telingana is hot and damp from March to the end of 
September, and temperate for the rest of the year. More than three- 
fourths of the total rainfall, or about 23 inches, is generally received 
between June and September, the remainder falling between October 
and November. 

Yellow jowdr, bdjra, sesamum, cotton, tuar and other pulses form 
the khar'if ox monsoon crops; and gram, barley, cotton, and linseed 
are the chief rabi or cold-season crops. The total area of Government 
lands cropped in 1901 was 30,240 square miles, of which 94 per cent, 
was devoted to ' dry crops,' and 6 per cent, was irrigated. 

In the Maratha country only two crops are raised, the rabi and the 
khar'if; while in Telingana there are five crops, the dbi and tdbi for 
rice, and the khar'if, rabi, and mdghi for 'dry crops,' the last being 
intermediate between the khar'if and rabi. 

As regards Marathwara, the extent of the khartf and rabi crops 
depends upon the rainfall. If the monsoon commences in June, khartf 
crops are largely sown at the beginning of the season ; but if the rains 
are late and the time for the /^//^r//" sowing has passed, then more land 
is reserved for the rabi. In Telingana, where there is a smaller extent 
of rabi lands, the khar'if sowing proceeds as late as July, closely 
followed by the mdghi sowing. Certain kinds of rice may be sown 
in the dbi so late as the beginning of August, if the rains are late ; 
and the tdbi or hot-season rice crop is sown ixom December up to 
the end of February. 

The cultivator begins preparing his land for the khar'if sowings in 
December or January, and for the rahi during the monsoon, whenever 
there is a break in the rains. The re^ar is ploughed with the large 
plough or ficli^ar, drawn by eight bullocks, only once in seven or eight 
years, the bakkhar or harrow being considered sufficient in intei mediate 
years. The Telingana soils, being mostly sandy and finely divided, 
require only slight ploughing and harrowing. The land is ploughed 
first in one direction, and the second ploughing is done at right angles 
to the first. The ploughing is repeated till the soil is perfectly 
pulverized and clean. 

The land thus prepared is then ready to receive the seed ; and 
after the first shower or two, on the breaking of the monsoon in June, 
khar'if sowings are commenced. In Telingana, after a few good 
showers have fallen, the land for rice cultivation is ploughed by 
buffaloes and left for a few days. The seed, which has been soaked 
beforehand and has sprouted, is now sown broadcast in the fields and 
ploughed in. But in fields irrigated from large tanks, the preparation 
of the ' wet ' lands begins even before the monsoon. For the rabi 
sowings, the land, which has been ploughed during tjie breaks in the 
rainy season, is sown in September or October, as at this time there 
are usually autumn showers which help the germination of the seed. 
For the tabi or hot-season rice crop, the land is first soaked with 
water from tanks and wells. The sowings proceed for two and 
even three months, from the beginning of December to the end of 
February. 

The Maratha cultivator has his kharif and rabi crops weeded three 
or four times during the season ; the Telingana ryot, on the other 
hand, is generally careless, weeding both crops only once or twice. 
His attention is chiefly devoted to the rice crop, which pays him best, 
and he weeds that three or four times during the season. 

YeWow Jo'U'dr, bajra, and the rainy season rice ripen about Decem- 
ber ; and white Jowdr, gram, wheat, barley, and the hot-season rice 
ripen from April to the end of May. 

Cotton is extensively raised in all the black-soil Districts, as well 
as in Telingana, wherever there is a suitable soil for its production. 
The short-stapled variety is the only kind which the cultivator grows, 
as he finds it easiest to produce. In the Districts served by railways, 
cotton-ginning and pressing factories are taking the place of the old 
system of hand-ginning ; and within the last four years several of these 
factories have been opened in those Districts, the railway having made 
it possible for the machinery required to be conveyed to parts where 
it was impossible to transport it in carts. Railway extension has also 
given an impetus to the cultivation of cotton and superior cereals. 
Of the total population of the State in 1901, 5,132,902, or 46 per 
cent., were supported by agriculture. Of these, 58,858 were land- 
holders or rent receivers, 3,454,284 were rent payers, 186,671 were farm 
servants, and 836,972 were field labourers. 

The principal crops in the Maratha country consist oi jowdr, bdjra^ 
wheat, cotton, linseed, and pulses ; and those in Telingana are rice, 
yellow jo2vdr, bdjra, castor-seed, sesame, and pulses. The staple food 
of the people of Marathwara consists oi jowdr, bdjra, and, to some 
extent, wheat ; while in Telingana, rice, joivdr, and ddjra are con- 
sumed. Pulses and inferior grains of many kinds are grown every- 
where. Oilseeds include linseed, sesame (gingelly), karar, and 
castor-seed, the two last being grown very largely in the Telingana 
Districts. Besides cotton, san-h.em\) and ambdri are the principal 
fibre-plants, while aloes and bhendi fibre are not unknown. Large 
quantities of chillies are grown everywhere, and zira (caraway) and 
ajivain {Ligiisticum Ajouan) are also grown in the Districts of Bidar, 
Atraf-i-balda, and Sirpur Tandur. In 1901 the areas occupied by the 
several important crops and their percentages to the total area cropped 
were as follows : — 
[[File: gazetteers231.png||frame|500px]]   

The yield per acre of different cro[)s varies so much thai it is dinicult 
to give a fair average ; the weight of rice, for instance, ranges between 
3 cwt. and 23 cwt. per acre. An attempt, however, has been made to 
give an average from figures obtained from the several Districts. Raw 
sugar, 18^ cwt. ; rice, 10^ cwt. ; Jowdr, 2^ cwt. ; wheat, 2^ cwt. ; bdjra, 
2\ cwt. ; sd7vdH, 2^ cwt. ; /:///////, 2 cwt. ; castor-seed, 2 cwt. ; gram, 
i| cwt. ; .sesame, i^ cwt.; linseed, li cwt.; and cotton, 641 lb. 

All the rice and sugar-cane fields arc manured, the latter very 
heavily. The manure generally used is that obtained from the village 
cattle, and the sweepings from the village, and from leaves and 
branches of trees. Jowdr and wheat in the reg^ar receive no manure. 
Rotation of crops in the Telingana Districts is Ajllovved in the inferior 
kinds of soils called chalka. When waste lands are first prepared, oil- 
seeds are sown for the first year ; the next year yellow jowar is grown, 
and in subsequent years they are put under sdivdn {Fanicuiii fruinen- 
taceuvi) and kodro iyPaspalum scrobiculatum). In lands of a better 
description, if the soil has become exhausted, jowdr is followed by 
cotton. \tW.Q\s joivdr, being a very exhausting crop, is never grown 
for two successive seasons on the same land. Where new land is of 
better cjuality, such as regar and mihva, and is suited for rabi crops, it 
is usual first to sow kiilthi {Dolichos biflorus), lakh, or castor-seed.
 
These are followed in the next year by kiilthi, gram, or peas. In the 
third year jowdr is grown, mixed with linseed or kardi gram ; after 
that, jowdr and kulthi are sown every alternate year. In rice lands no 
regular rotation is followed, but sugar-cane and betel-leaf are sometimes 
raised. In the Maratha Districts the rotation is as follows. When 
waste land is prepared for the kharif sowing, it is first put under bdjra 
or cotton ; and for two or three years afterwards only bdjra is raised. 
Then, successively, mung, iird, matt, or j'rt^z-hemp is grown ; and when 
the land is in a fit condition for being ploughed, a tiiar crop follows. 
The roots of this crop strike deep into the soil and loosen it, thereby 
making ploughing easy. When waste land is prepared for rabi cultiva- 
tion, jowdr or kardi is sown first, followed by wheat or jozvdr for the 
next four or five years. In ' wet ' cultivation sugar-cane is followed by 
rice in the next year. 

Oranges are extensively grown in and around Aurangabad, Osman- 
abad, Parbhani, and Nirmal, but at Hyderabad and other places they 
are found only in private gardens. Ordinary mangoes are produced 
everywhere, but very superior grafted mangoes are grown in gardens 
around Hyderabad. During the rainy season, country vegetables are 
raised in all parts, but English vegetables are grown only at Hyder- 
abad, its suburbs, and at Secunderabad, and also at some District 
head-quarters. Excellent grapes were formerly grown at Daulatabad, 
and an attempt is being made to revive their cultivation. 

The area under cultivation has considerably increased during the 
last twenty years. Large tracts of unoccupied cultivable land are 
still to be found in the Sirpur Tandur, Mahbubnagar, Warangal, 
Elgandal, and Indur Districts of Telingana. In the Maratha Districts 
the whole of the cultivable land has been taken up. The ryots have 
taken no interest in improving the quality of their crops by selection 
of seed, or by the cultivation of new varieties, or by introducing 
improved agricultural implements. 

In the Maratha tract, a large heavy plough is used for breaking up 
the hard black soil, which is drawn by four or five yoke of cattle, 
but in Telingana a light plough is employed. Other implements 
arc bullock-hoes, the bakkhar (harrow), and the tippaii (seed-drills). 
The ordinary mot or leathern bucket is the most common water-lift, 
and is worked by a pair of bullocks. On the banks of rivers and 
streams, the ydtam or bhiidki (a lever-like contrivance) is used by one 
or two men. 

There is no agricultural department in the State at present. The 
duties of a department of Land Records are performed by the Revenue 
department. Advances for the construction of wells are given by the 
State in times of scarcity and famine. The well and field are assigned 
as security, and the loan is repaid by instalments, interest being paid at 
6 per cent, per annum. The cultivators are often largely indebted to 
the money-lender, and frequently become tenants of their creditors. 
Money is usually advanced by professional money-lenders, but wealthy 
agriculturists also lend money. Agricultural banks established on 
sound principles would probably succeed and would be beneficial to 
the cultivators. The ordinary rate of interest on money advanced is 
nominally 25 per cent, for the season. The money-lender advances 
a loan on the security of the future crop, and at harvest time receives 
25 per cent, as interest in cash or in kind, at prices ruling at the time, 
so that the real interest is about 50 per cent, per annum. 

With the exception of the white cattle of Eastern Telingana, the 
Khammamett and Devarkonda cattle, and the small bullocks of 
Adilabad District and the Amrabad idh/k, no special breeds of 
cattle are to be found in the State. The white cattle are indigenous 
to the country, and are a hardy stock, with black-tipped tails. The 
Khammamett and Devarkonda breeds are much stronger than the 
white cattle, and resemble the Mysore breed. The Sirpur Tandur 
and Amrabad bullocks are of small size, but are fast trotters. The 
waste lands and forests of the Telingana Districts are the pasture- 
grounds where they breed. Horses adapted for military and general 
purposes were formerly reared in large numbers, but the importation 
of Arabs and Australian horses has diminished the demand. The 
Government maintains a few Arab sires in some of the Maratha and 
Telingana Districts, and it is believed that the result has been satis- 
fectory. The Deccan ponies are still noted for their surefootedness, 
hardiness, and powers of endurance. The other animals, such as 
buffaloes, goats, and shee}), are all of the ordinary type. The Marath- 
wara buffaloes are very superior milch cattle, and fetch double or 
treble the price of the ordinary buffaloes of Telingana. Sheep and 
goats of the ordinary kind are bred everywhere. In most of the 
Maratha districts, goats of the Gujarat breed are reared, which gene- 
rally yield a good su[)ply of milk. The [)rice of cattle varies from 
Rs. 40 to Rs. 150 or even Rs. 200 per pair ; that of ponies from Rs. 15 
to Rs. 150 each. Milch buffaloes in Telingana are worth from Rs. 30 
to Rs. 45, hut \\\ the Mariltha Districts they fetch from Rs. 50 to 
Rs. 150. Slieep and goats are sold at from Rs. 2 to Rs. 3-8 per head, 
and milch goats at from Rs. 7 to Rs. 20 or Rs. 25. 

The last famine caused great mortality among cattle in the famine- 
stricken districts. Grazing lands have been set apart, but in dry 
seasons the grass in them is very poor. Kadbi, or jowdr stalks, form 
the chief fodder supply, of which more than sufficient is raised in good 
years, and large quantities are stacked to meet requirements in times 
of scarcity. 

Until recently (1897), a great horse fair was held annually at 
Malegaon, in Bidar District, at which a large number of horses 
and cattle were sold ; but for several years past the fair has not 
taken place owing to the prevalence of plague. At Hyderabad there 
is an extensive horse mart. In every District weekly or monthly horse 
and cattle fairs are held. 

The Maratha country being composed of black soil, there is not 
so much necessity for irrigation as in Telingana ; the black soil has 
the power to retain moisture, which is further supplemented during the 
cold season by a copious deposit of dew, which supplies the crops 
with moisture sufficient for their growth and maturity. Where rice, 
sugar-cane, and garden produce are raised, the chief sources of supply 
are wells. The Telingana soils being sandy, it becomes of paramount 
importance to store water ; and for this purpose advantage has been 
taken of the undulating character of the ground. Dams have been 
thrown across the valleys of streams and gorges between hills, and rain- 
water which falls over a large catchment basin is thus collected, and 
made available for purposes of irrigation by means of sluices. 

Besides the tanks and kuntas or ponds, irrigation is carried on by 
means of wells generally, and by means of canals and anicuts in 
certain districts. For rice, sugar-cane, and turmeric the land is 
constantly watered as long as the crops are standing, while bdghat, 
or garden lands, require only occasional irrigation. Wheat and barley 
are usually sown near wells and are watered from them once a week. 
Across the Tungabhadra, in Lingsugur District, a series of anicuts 
have been constructed to hold up the water, which is directed into 
side channels and is used for supplying tanks and lands along the 
banks of the river. There are several anicuts in a length of 30 miles 
on the Tungabhadra, the ! principal one being at Kuragal, which 
extends completely across the river. All of these anicuts were built 
many years ago, and no statistics are obtainable regarding their cost. 
A new project is now under construction for taking water from the 
Manjra river in Medak District for irrigation purposes and the supply 
of tanks. 

The water from Government tanks is utilized for irrigating the ' wet ' 
lands, which pay a water tax. There are altogether 370 large tanks and 
11,015 kiDiias or ponds, besides 1,347 channels, in the State. The 
large tanks are maintained by the Public Works department, while the 
smaller ones, as well as kiintas, are in charge of Revenue ofticers ; but 
since the introduction of the dastband system, zaminddrs and local 
officials and others have taken up some of the breached tanks, receiving 
a certain percentage for their maintenance after reconstruction. These, 
however, are mostly tanks of no very large size. 

Most of the tanks — such as the Husain Sagar, the Ibrahimpatan, 
the Mir Alam, the Afzal Sagar, the Jalpalli, and many other large 
tanks, as well as irrigation channels — were constructed by the former 
rulers or ministers of the State. The mincer tanks are the work of 
zamttiddrs. No complete record is available as to the actual capital 
outlay, but those constructed in recent years will be described in 
dealing with Public Works. 

The land served by wells is irrigated by the old primitive method 
of lifting the water by means of large buckets drawn by bullocks. 
The total number of wells in the State is 123,175. Where any supply 
channels from a river or a perennial stream are constructed to carry 
water to tanks, the ryots sometimes bail out water on either side of the 
channel by means of hand-buckets called bhurki or guda, and so get 
a constant flow. Masonry wells cost between Rs. 400 and Rs. 600, 
and those lined with stone without any mortar between Rs. 200 and 
Rs. 300 ; such wells have two bullock runs and two buckets, and are 
capable of irrigating 4 to 5 acres of rice or sugar-cane, and 10 acres 
of garden land. 
==Rent,Wages,and Prices==

As ryotwdri is the prevailing revenue system throughout Hyder- 
abad, the sum paid by the cultivator represents the land revenue, 
which will be dealt with later. In the case of 
deserted villages, which have been leased by the ^^^ pdces^^' 
State, the holder is free to charge his tenants what 
rent he pleases, provided the rates do not exceed those previously 
l)aid to the State. The pattaddrs or ryots, who hold directly from 
the State, sometimes sublet the whole or a part of their lands or 
take partners called shikmlddrs. The latter cultivate land in part- 
nership with the pattaddrs, and divide the produce and expenses in 
jjroportion to the cattle employed by each, the pattaddr receiving from 
his co-sharcr a proportionate amount of the State dues. If he 
sublets, the occupant frequently receives from his sub-tenant an en- 
hanced rental for the land in money or in kind. Iiidiiiddrs and 
non-cultivating classes usually let their lands. The non-cultivating 
occupant, if he be a money-lender and has purchased the occupancy 
right of the land, generally obtains a larger rent or share from his sub- 
tenant than the inamdar, who, having no cattle of his own, is obliged 
to let his land fur a small share. The money-lender, on the other 
hand, supplies his sub-tenant with funds to purchase cattle and imple- 
ments, and either charges interest or lets his land at rates far higher 
than he himself pays to the State. The latter system is very 
common in the Maratha Districts, where land has acquired a much 
higher value since the settlement, and where the non-cultivating 
classes, mostly comprising money-lenders, form a much higher pro- 
portion of the population than in Telingana. 

No official returns of the prevailing rates of wages are available. 
Agricultural labourers and domestic servants may be taken as types 
of unskilled labour, and carpenters, blacksmiths, and masons as those 
of skilled labour. The former are paid from Rs. 30 to Rs. 36 per 
annum, besides receiving one meal a day, and a blanket and a pair 
of sandals every year. Sometimes the labourer borrows two or three 
years' wages from his employer for marriage expenses and undertakes 
to serve for a stipulated period at a reduced rate, the reduction repre- 
senting the amount of interest on the sum borrowed. Wages are 
sometimes paid partly in cash and partly in kind. To persons hired 
by the day, wages are generally paid in grain, but in the case of cotton- 
picking the labourer gets a certain proportion of the quantity picked. 
Village artisans are usually paid in kind, and in some few instances 
partly in cash and partly in grain. ^Vhen grain is dear, cash wages are 
substituted by the employer. 

In the vicinity of towns cash wages are the rule ; and wherever 
cotton-ginning and pressing factories are established, or mining indus- 
tries developed, such as coal-mining and stone-quarrying, or railway 
and road construction are started, high cash wages are demanded, 
varying from Rs. 7 to Rs. 10 per month. 

In times of scarcity wages fall considerably below the average, owing 
to the large number of labourers thrown out of employment. The 
favourable rates of assessment introduced since the last settlement 
have been conducive to much agricultural activity and a greater 
demand for labour, whereby wages have risen, and the labourer who 
got Rs. 30 per annum now demands Rs. 36. The same may be said 
of all other labourers, artisans, and domestic servants. The higher 
prices of food-grains have also contributed towards enhancement in 
the rates of wages. 

In the absence of any regular record of prices, information specially 
collected has been embodied in Table III (p. 302). No records 
exist of prices prior to the construction of railways, but it is certain 
that prices were then much lower than now, because owing to the 
absence of means of transport only a small quantity of the grain pro- 
duced was exported. The railways have made prices of grain uniform 
over large tracts ; and in times of famine and scarcity in the neigh- 
bouring Provinces the surplus grain of the country is exported, thus 
causing a rise in prices. During the famines of 1897 and 1 899-1900 
prices of grain were extraordinarily high, though, while grain was being 
imported for the relief of the affected areas, it was being largely ex- 
ported from the other parts of the State to Provinces where large 
profits were probable. During the famine of 1 899-1 900, jowar sold 
at 5 seers per rupee in Aurangabad, at 3^ seers in Bhir and Nanden 
at 4I seers in Parbhani and Osmanabad, and at 5^ seers in Bldar. In 
Table III the price of salt is given for Hyderabad only, the prices 
in the country being almost the same. 

==Forests==

A total area of nearly 18,000 square miles is under forests, which 
are divided into three classes: the 'reserved' (5,184 square miles), 
the protected (4,408 square miles), and the open or 
unprotected (8,387 square miles). In the 'reserved' 
and protected forests, trees are under the control of the Forest depart- 
ment ; but in the open forests only sixteen species are reserved : 
namely, sandal {Sajitalum album), teak {Tedojia grandis), shisha>n 
{Daibergia Sissoo), ebony i^Diospyros melanoxylon), satin-wood {Chlor- 
oxylon Sivietenia), eppa {Hardtvickia binata), nalldmadi {Ten/iinalia 
tomentosd), bijdsdl {Fterocarpus Marsuptnm), batta-gunam {Stephegyne 
parvifolid), somi {Soymida febrifugd), dhaura or tirmani {Anogeissus 
latifolid), kodsha {Cleistanthus coUiniis), sandra [Acacia Caiechie), bhan- 
ddra {Adina cordifolia), Jiiokab {Schrebet-a swieienioides), and chinnangi 
{Lagerstroemia parviflora). The forests form six divisions — Warangal, 
Indur, Nirmal, Mahbubnagar, Aurangabad, and Gulbarga — the last 
two being in Marathwara, and the remainder in Telingana. Each 
division is under an Assistant Conservator. The management of this 
department is guided by the Forest Act of 1899, which empowers the 
Conservator to exercise full control over ' reserved ' and protected 
forests, and reserved species of trees in open forests. Timber is 
supplied to purchasers at prescribed rates, while cultivators receive 
free timber and fuel for agricultural implements and domestic purposes. 
Minor produce, such as grass, branches, and leaves, &c., is likewise 
granted free to the local ryots. Free grazing is also permitted, under 
certain restrictions. After meeting the local demand, timber of various 
kinds is exported to different parts of the State. Local railways and 
the military workshop are also supplied with timber, exploited and 
transported departmentally. No use is made of elephants nor are 
floating operations resorted to. 

No special fuel and fodder reserves are maintained, but the grazing 
in the ' reserved ' and protected forests is regulated by the de[)ariment, 
and fees are collected either departmentally or tlirough contract agency. 
Grazing rights in the open forests are auctioned annually by the 
Revenue department. In years of scarcity cattle are sent to the 
forests, which are then thrown open to free grazing. Measures are 
adopted to prevent the destruction of trees for leaf fodder, and some 
attempts have been made to store fodder. Edible fruits, roots, and 
flowers are utilized during famines by the destitute and starving poor. 
Some of the valuable forests are protected from fire by making regular 
fire lines, prohibiting the carrying of inflammable materials, closing 
areas to grazing, and by the appointment of patrols and guards. 

There are no special plantations of any economic value in the State. 
The following table shows the area of each class of forest in each 
forest division in 1901 : — 



  [[File: gazetteers232.png||frame|500px]]   


As the forest survey and demarcation have not been completed, the 
areas shown above are only approximate, and it is possible that as 
much as one-third of the total is really cultivated. The forests are not 
equally distributed in all parts, the two Districts of Osmanabad and 
Bhir having no forest at all, while the forests in Karimnagar (Elgandal), 
Warangal, and Adilabad (Sirpur Tandur) occupy half the area of the 
State lands. The Maratha Districts are far less wooded than the 
Telingana country. The figures given below show the average revenue, 
expenditure, and surplus of the Forest department for a series of 
years : — 
[[File: gazetteers233.png||frame|500px]]   
The practice of shifting cultivation in forests, or pode, which was 
very common some years ago, is now strictly prohibited; but illicit 
clearances for temporary cultivation are sometimes made, and, when 
found out, departmental punishment is inflicted on the offenders. 
Several grasses are known to possess economic properties. The fibres of ma7inakopri and modian are extensively used for making 
ropes, for stringing cots, and for various agricultural uses. If properly 
treated, these might also prove suitable for manufacturing paper. 
Among other minor products, mahiid flowers are of importance as 
being generally used for distilling country liquor.

==Mines and Minerals==

The Hyderabad State is rich in minerals, chief among which may 
1)6 mentioned the extensive coal-measures of Warangai, and the 
gold-mines of Lingsugur. The coal-field of Singareni 
was discovered by Dr. King of the Indian Geological . , 

Survey so flir back as 1872. Active operations 
were, however, delayed till 1886, when the Hyderabad (Deccan) 
Company obtained a concession, and opened the mine at Singareni, 
which is the only mine profitably worked at present. Four distinct 
seams have been discovered in the Singareni field. The first varies in 
thickness from 30 to 50 feet, and is composed of alternating layers 
of coal and carbonaceous shale, the former being of tolerably good 
quality and supplying a fair steam coal. The second seam, lying 
about 100 feet below the first, consists of shaly coal. Similarly, the 
third seam, which is about 30 to 40 feet below the second, consists of 
a hard shaly coal ; and as the coal these two contain gives 30 per cent, 
of ash, they have been abandoned as being of no commercial value. 
The fourth seam, called the King seam after its discoverer, consists of 
the most valuable coal, being semi-bituminous hard coal which does 
not coke but yields a good gas for lighting purposes. This is the 
seam which is now being worked. Its thickness is from 3 to 7 feet 
and its area about 9 square miles, and at the average thickness of 
5 feet it is computed to contain no less than 47,500,000 tons of coal. 
The royalty paid to the State varies from 8 annas to R. i per ton. 
In 1896 the royalty realized was Rs. 1,25,000. The output of coal 
from the Singareni coal-field rose from 3,259 tons in 1887 to 144,668 
in 1891, and 421,218 in 1901, and was 419,546 tons in 1904. 

Tiold occurs in Lingsugur District, in the rocks of the transition 
series, in the Muski, Romanhal, and Sagar formations. The total area 
of gold-bearing rocks in this territory, as proved by the Geological 
Survey of India and by the prospecting operations of the Hyderabad 
(Deccan) Company, is about 1,240 square miles. The first band of 
rock lies between the Tungabhadra and Kistna rivers, and is composed 
essentially of a schistose l>lack hornblendic trappoid. Tliis band was 
actively prospected in 1896-7 by the Hyderabad (Deccan) Company, 
and a sul)sidiary company has since been formed to work the quartz. 
'I'he average yield here, it is alleged, has been an ounce to the ton, 
and certain specimens have yielded as much as 20 oz. to the ton, but 
this is rare. Want of water for working the stamps has hampered 
operations, but this difficulty has been got over by the construction of 
an artificial reservoir. The next band is at Bomanhal, extending from 
the left bank of the Kistna west of Surapur for about 20 miles, and 
disappearing under the black cotton soil between the Bhima and the 
Kistna. This band is not more than 3 miles in width and is chiefly 
composed of hornblendic schists. Undoubted traces of old workings 
have been found in this locality, and from this it is inferred that this 
band may yet prove profitable. The third band, that of Sagar between 
Sagar and Surapur, is not of much importance. 

Innumerable deposits of iron ore of varying qualities are widely 
distributed over the lateritic and granitic tracts of the State, while 
similar deposits have been discovered in the sandstone formations in 
the Godavari and Wardha valleys. In the tract situated between the 
Kistna and Tungabhadra rivers, hematite occurs in considerable 
quantities. The rocks of the Kamptee series, which are extensively 
developed between the Godavari and Wardha valleys, abound in hard 
ferruginous pebbles and clay iron ores, and are worked in the Chinnur 
taluk of Adilabad District. Jagtial, Nirmal, \\^arangal, Yelgarab, and 
other places are noted for their cast-steel cakes or disks, which were 
largely exported to distant parts. 

From ancient times diamond mines have been worked in the alluvial 
deposits round about Partyal, near the Kistna, as well as in other 
localities in the alluvial tract of the same river. The Partyal diamond- 
bearing layer is about 10 to 16 inches thick, and is concealed by black 
cotton soil. Trials made in recent years by the Hyderabad (Deccan) 
Company, involving a considerable outlay, proved unsuccessful ; only 
stones of very small size were found, the gangue having been worked 
out by the old miners. 

Among other minerals found in the country may be mentioned mica 
in the Khammamett taluk of Warangal ; fine specimens of corundum 
and garnets in the Paloncha taluk of the same District ; and a small 
deposit of graphite in the vicinity of Hasanabad in Karlmnagar 
(Elgandal) District. A copper lode has recently been discovered at 
Chintrala in Nalgonda District, which promises to be remunerative. 
Excellent limestone is quarried at Shahabad, between the Wadi Junction 
and Gulbarga on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. These quarries 
are extensively worked on both sides of the line for a considerable 
distance. The limestone is of two colours, black and grey, the latter 
being the more abundant of the two, and taking a polish almost equal 
to marble. An extensive industry has been carried on, and the stone 
is not only being widely used for flooring purposes, but is exported 
outside the State also in large quantities for building purposes. In 
addition to the minerals already mentioned, red chalk and saline 
deposits are found.

==See also==

For a large number of articles about  Hyderabad State, extracted from the Gazetteer of 1908 (as well as other articles on  Hyderabad State) please either click the 'India' link (below, left) and go to Hyderabad State (under H) or enter ' Hyderabad State ' in the 'Search' box (top, right).



[[Hyderabad State,  1908]]

[[Hyderabad State, Population 1908 ]]

[[Hyderabad State, Agriculture 1908]]