Manipur: The people (tribes and communities)
Graphic courtesy: The Times of India
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Ethnography
By The Manipur Science & Technology Council (MASTEC), 2023
Ethnos
Manipur assumes an isolated entity not only in its geographical setting but also in peopling by virtue of the land being the buffer zone between the Caucasoid-Dravidian belt of the west and the oriental Mongoloid belt of the east. Manipur has four main aboriginal ethnic groups viz., the Meiteis of the valley and the Nagas, the Kukis and the Mizos of the surrounding hill tribes. Incidentally, the term "hillmen" has the same connotation with "tribesmenâ€. The "Pangals" (Manipuri Muslims) are the immigrants in the later part of the history of the land.
Anthropometrically, the Meiteis and the hillmen are characterised by short stature, mesorrhine, mesocephalic (or brachy cephalic) and leptoproscopic face. The Pangals on the other hand have long face, mesorrhine, dolicho-mesocephalic head forms. The Meiteis are of Mongoloid stock with a high percentage of Aryan blood. The original settlers of the land speak a number of languages and dialects, which have linguistic affinities.
Origin
The origin of the Meiteis and other tribes are shrouded with many theories. The Meiteis and the other tribes have been identified with the "Kiratas" of the Vedic literature (Chatterjee, 1950). However, many historians have rejected t`e theory of Hindu origin of the Meitei. Pemberton (1835) considers them to be the descendants of a Tartar Colony from N-W frontiers of China. B.H. Hodson's theory of Tai ground that the Meiteis are Tibeto-Burman Language speakers while the Tais are of Siamese-Chinese linguistic family.
G.A. Grierson put forward another theory that the Tibeto Burman and other Mongolian ethnic groups inhabited the upper courses of the Yangtza and the Hung-Ho rivers in China in pre-historic times. Their kinsmen migrated southwards and settled in the Hukwang Valley of the present land of the Catnips in upper Burma before they moved further down to Manipur valley.
Archaeological Evidence
Archaeological findings have revealed that Manipur was inhabited by pre-historic man since stone age. Cultural relics of pre- and post-historic periods are found from many caves and open-air sites. Mention may be made of the discovery of caves at Kangkhui (Ukhrul District), Sangbu (Chandel District), Tharon (Tamenglong District), Nongpok Keithelmanbi (Senapati District), Mongjam (Imphal District) and Wangoo (Bishenpur District). The palaeolithic man lived in caves while the Neolithic lived in open -air sites. Neolithic man reached the Manipur Valley not later than 2000 B.C. Recent archaeological findings at Tharon cave and Napachik etc. in Manipur point to the existence of a Mon-Khmer speaking Australoid-Mongoloid people who migrated to this land before the arrival of the Tibeto-Burman speakers.
When Tai origin is questioned, well-established proto-historic and historic relationships between the Meiteis, Mon-Khmer and the Tai are supposed to have produced Tai influence on the language and culture of the Meiteis.
The Amalgamation
The Meiteis of today are Tibeto-Burman Mongoloid with Australoid, Aryan and Thai admixture and still blended with some Negrito and Dravidian elements. This racial blending is intimately hooked to the evolution of a distinct civilization in Manipur valley. The ethnonym "Meiteis" was originally applied to the "Ningthouja" salai (clan-dynasty), which was one of the seven salais who ruled seven independent principalities in the valley in the early part of the recorded history.
Later on the Ningthouja salai overruled other principalities thereby absorbing the different social groups thereof to form the "Meiteis. Again, Mc Culloch (1859) and Brown (1874) subscribe to the theory of the Naga Kuki origin of the Meiteis. Hodson (1908) was also fully described the Nagas and Kukis of the hills. This ethnic homogeneity facilitated the absorption of many tribes into the Meitei social groups.
Besides, oriental Mongolians consisting of Shans Burmese and Chinese etc. who settled in the valley either as war captives or peaceful immigrants were also observed. The settlement of people from the East continued since the time of king Naothingkhong in the 7th century A.D. till the time of king Maramba in the 18th century A.D.
Absorption of people from the rest of India was rather late. The settlement of these people probably started since the time of king Thangbi Lanthaba (1302-1324 A.D). The amalgamation of the new entrants into the Meitei society was effected by conferring them appropriate Sageis (surnames) and Salai (clans). This "meiteisation" of different migrants gave the Meiteis, not only numerical advantage but also helped in enriching their literature and culture and ultimately evolving into a settled civilization with pristine national heritage of its own long before the Aryans came.
Culture
Cultural [excellence] of the Meiteis was discernible in almost all fields. Their millennia-old political organisation, social set up, religion, language and literature, martial tradition, dance and music and other fine arts etc. each is a class by itself.
Manipur's prehistoric cultural affinity with the Chinese Neolithic culture of second millennium B.C. has been exposed at the 1981 excavation at Napachik. The Chinese records of the second century B.C. by Chang-Kien (Acharyya, 1988), have thrown limelights on Manipur's cultural link with China from the times immemorial.
The beginning of Manipuri literature may go back to 1500-2000 years from now. The Meiteis had a strong sense of historicity and maintained chronicles and numerous records about their genealogy, society, religion, government, astrology, charms and mantras, lexicography, medicine, earth sciences etc. More than one thousand Meitei scripture had already existed before 18th century A.D. Such a rich heritage could be developed and maintained because, the Meiteis probably became literate long back and art of writing was spread extensively as a result of their historic association with the Chinese who were the first literate people on the earth and who invented paper and the art of writing etc. A cultural onslaught occurred when all the archaic Meitei scriptures were destroyed by king Garibiniwaz at the time of proselytization of the Meiteis into Bengali Vaishnavism in the 18th century A.D. Proselytization of the Meiteis into Hinduism and the Tribals into Christianity have brought about a metamorphosis of their original culture to a state of a blend of old and new but not to a replacement of the former by the latter.
Religion
The Meiteis had their own system of religion, which had its own myths and legends, Gods and Goddesses, priests and priestesses, rituals and festivals, etc. though it was more or less akin to the animism of the tribals. The Meiteis embraced Hinduism in the 18th century A.D. The tribes of the hills remained unconverted and were relegated by the new Manipuri Hindus to the "degraded heathens". In the later part of the history, when Manipur fell into the hands of British Administrators, missionaries were brought in the hills. The first even conversion of Manipuri tribals to Christianity took place at Ukhrul (in the eastern hills) in 1894. American Baptist mission landed earlier at the Northeast and Southeast hills of Manipur. Roman Catholic mission became active in the 1950's. The Manipuri Muslims or "Meitei Pangals" were settled with their religion in Manipur Valley during the 17th century onwards. They are called "Pangans" as derived from Bengal (Bangan then Pangan) the place where they migrated. Meitei language was adopted as their mother tongue and they became an integral socio-religious component of Manipuri population.
Social Mores
The foregoing lines hint at a pluralistic society in Manipur structured on a multi-lingual base of civilization and culture. Description of all social taboos of different sections of the people will be beyond the scope of this work. Nevertheless, a brief overview of the general social norms of the people is essential. Caste stratification was not featured in the pristine form of Manipuri society. The existence of the seven salais (clans) was exogamous and not endogamous as in the Hindu caste system. Womenfolk enjoyed an equal status with men folk before the advent of Hinduism. "Sati" and "Pardah" systems were unknown. At present, families are patriarchal. Polygamy once common in earlier times has become less prevalent. Child marriage is absent. Widow remarriage is socially permitted. Women are hardworking and are seen in almost every field where men are. Wives are very much loyal to their husbands. Dowry does not constitute an essential feature in marriages.
Present Demography
Seven salais
The seven salais of the Meiteis have further divisions into Sangeis (surnames). The components of Meitei confederacy are:
• Ningthouja (Mangang) (with 125 sageis)
• Moirang (67 sageis)
• Khuman (67 sageis)
• Angom (62 sageis)
• Luwang (58 sageis)
• Chenglei (sarang-Leisangthem ) (35 sageis) and
• Khaba-Nganba (21 sageis)
There are 44 tribes in the state speaking different dialects. Twenty-nine such groups have now become the constitutional categories under the label " Scheduled Tribes". The non-Hindu, Meiteilon speaking population has been placed under the "Scheduled Caste" category. The Meitei Hindus constitute the largest ethnic group of the state.
In a total geographical area of 22,327 sq km, a population of 18,37,149 (1991 census) is distributed at an average density of 82 persons per sq km. However, the distribution pattern is very much skewed in the plains as the density in the valley works out to be 529 pesons per sq km. While it is as low as 32 per sq km in the hills against the all-India average density of 267 people per sq km in 1991. The sex ratio is 978 females for every 1000 males. In the pluralistic ethno-religious complex, the scheduled tribes and scheduled castes constitute 34.41 p.c. and 2.02 p.c. of the total population respectively.
The Hindus outnumber other religious groups having a share of 58 p.c. followed by the Christians (34.11 p.c.) and the Muslims (7.26 p.c.). The other religious communities whose migration from other parts of India aflux during the sixties. The Christian population in the state also showed a high growth rate during the decade 1961-71. The population escalation during the last three decades has been helped by the insidious infiltration of illegal foreigners from Nepal, Bangladesh, Burma etc. Among the hill tribes, the Tangkhuls (Naga) of the eastern hills and the Thadous (Kuki) of the North-western and Southern hills constitute the largest tribal groups. The Angamis, Semas and Saltes form insignificant populations in the state. While the hills are the natural demarcated habitats of various tribal groups, their phenomenon of migration towards the plains in the recent years have assumed demographic and socio-economic concern since there is already a demographic imbalance featuring 67.5 p.c. of the people in the valley which is 1/10th of the total area of the state and only 32.5 p.c. live in the Hills comprising as vast an area as 9/10th of the total area. If this is the prognosis of the Nature's disharmony with the heritage bound hill-mode-of-life of the tribals, all concerned need by geared up to ferret out the cause and remedy of it.
Tribes
Manipur is located in India's northeast. It is bordered on the north by Nagaland, on the west by Assam, on the southwest by Mizoram, and on the south and east by Myanmar (Burma). Manipur is a name that means "land of diamonds."
According to the 2011 Census of India, it has a total population of 28, 55,794 people living in an area of 22,327 square kilometres. The population of the valley accounts for 58.9% of the total, while the population of the hills accounts for 41.1 per cent.
Tribes:
In Manipur, there are 33 recognized tribes that either belongs to the Nagas or the Kukis, two separate conglomerates of Manipur tribals. The biggest differences between the two populations are their separate accents, clothes, customs, and traditions.
The Meiteis and Nagas are the only two indigenous communities known to have lived in Manipur since the beginning of time. Kukis, on the other hand, has just lately begun to settle in Manipur, and they have arrived in waves, according to the National Socialist Council of Nagaland.
Thadou is the most populous ST in Manipur, with 1.8 lakh people, accounting for 24.6 percent of the state's total ST population, followed by Tangkhul (19.7%), Kabui (11.1%), Paite (6.6%), Hmar (5.8%), Kacha Naga (5.7%), and Vaiphui (5.7%). (5.2 percent ).
The recognized tribes who made their home in Manipur for years now are Aimol, Anal, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Inpui, Hmar, Kharam, Khoibu, Koirao, Kom, Lamkang, Liangmai, Mao, Maram, Maring, Mate, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Poumai, Purum, Ralte, Rongmei (Kabui), Simte, Suhte, Tangkhul, Tarao, Thadou, Thangal, Vaiphei, Zeme and Zou.
Manipur is a multi-ethnic state located at the easternmost part of India. It has a total population of 28, 55,794 according to 2011 Census of India covering an area of 22,327 square kilometers. Out of this, 58.9% represents the valley population and 41.1% represents the population of the hills.
The hills are inhabited mainly by the tribals with a total population of 11, 67,422. Of which, there are 33 recognised tribes (in Manipur) which either fall under the Nagas or the Kukis, the two different conglomerates of Manipur tribals. The two communities are differentiated mainly from their distinctive dialects, costumes, cultures and traditions. The Nagas have a history of headhunting and a strong warrior tradition whereas the Kukis are a sub-family of the Tibeto-Burman language group which is also related to Mizos of Mizoram and Chins in Myanmar.
The recognized tribes who made their home in Manipur for years now are Aimol, Anal, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Inpui, Hmar, Kharam, Khoibu, Koirao, Kom, Lamkang, Liangmai, Mao, Maram, Maring, Mate, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Poumai, Purum, Ralte, Rongmei (Kabui), Simte, Suhte, Tangkhul, Tarao, Thadou, Thangal, Vaiphei, Zeme and Zou.
All the tribes generally communicate in their own dialects among the same ethnic groups while communication between different groups is carried out in Meitei or Manipuri language, the official language of Manipur. Despite the socio-political and linguistic differences among them, all the ethnic tribes originate from the same Mongoloid group having similarities in cultural and traditional domains. Rice is consumed as the main food by all tribes of Manipur whereas meat, fish and seasonal vegetables are being the favorites.
Despite the fact that landforms and the number of tribes divide Manipur geographically and politically, the common lifestyle followed by different tribes, such as the food they eat, the core reason for the festivals they celebrate, and the bright colors in the clothes they wear, has a strong unifying effect. It's fascinating to observe how so many cultures can coexist with so many similarities while still standing apart in some manner. As a result, it's no surprise that Manipur is known as the "Land of the Jewels."
The more populous tribes
Among the many tribes that inhabit Manipur's territory, the following are a handful of the more well-known
Aimol
Aimol belongs to the Kuki tribes, which may be found in both Assam and Manipur. Aimol translates to "crab mountain." They speak the Aimol language, which is classed as Kuki-Chin-Mizo. Aimol is listed under the Kuki tribes found living both in Assam and Manipur. They speak Aimol language, classified under Kuki-Chin-Mizo language. They are based in parts of Chandel district, Senapati district and around Loktak Lake in Bishnupur district. They practice slash and burn agriculture and are primarily Christians.
Anal
The Anal tribe is one of the oldest dwellers in the Southern hills of Tengnoupal district. They were recognized as a tribe in 1951. Earlier they were recognized as one of the oldest Kuki tribes but nowadays they identify themselves as a Naga tribe. The Anal tribe is one of the oldest in the Tengnoupal district's southern highlands. They used to be known as one of the earliest Kuki tribes, but they now refer to themselves as a Naga tribe.
Chiru
Chirus are one of the earliest inhabitants of Manipur and Assam. It was recognized as a Scheduled Tribe in 1956. They are found in four districts of the state, in Tamenglong, Kangpokpi, Churachandpur and Thoubal district. They speak Chiru dialect, one of Kuki-Chin-Naga languages. Chirus are one of Manipur's and Assam's first residents. Their demeanor, customs, and language look to be Kuki, however their body, habits, hairdo, and other characteristics are Naga.
Chothe
They are settled in Chandel and Bishnupur districts and speak a Kuki-Chin dialect. Their main occupations are cultivation, livestock rearing, blacksmith and weaving. They are divided into seven clans. They are also known as Purums since they settled in the Purum region of Chandel. The word "chothe" comes from the word "kachohte," which means "to bring or hold a boy."
Gangte
They are one of the major Kuki-Chin tribes dwelling in Churachandpur, Tamenglong and Senapati districts; Christianity being their apex religion. They have quite a strong population with around 40,000 worldwide, as of 2018. The Gangtes are also one of the educated and a developed lot with 99% literacy rate.
Hmar
They belong to Kuki-Chin-Mizo group concentrated mainly in Churachandpur district. Agriculture and weaving are their main occupations. They adopted Christianity from 1910. Hmar have their village administration consisting of Lal (Chief), Khawnbawlupa (chief minister), Khonbols (ministers).
Kharam
They are settled in 7 villages in Senapati district, of which KharamPallen village is their main biggest settlement. They were recognized as a scheduled tribe in 2003. Most of them follow Christianity.
Khoibu
Khoibu is one of the Naga tribes of Manipur. They speak Khoibu dialect and call themselves ‘Uipo’. KhoibuKhullen is the oldest and the first Khoibu settlement village in Chandel district. They are recognized as a Scheduled Tribe of Manipur in 1949.
Koirao
Also called themselves ‘Thangals’, are settled mostly in Senapati district. They are close-knit and live in hill villages mostly located along the National Highway No. 2. Thangals generally dress in bright and colorful attires.
Kom
Koms are settled in Churachandpur, Tengnoupal and Senapati districts. They speak language similar to that of Koireng, Aimol and Chiru and closely related to the Hmar. Christianity is its main religion. Some major festivals of Koms are Seling, Hlungphun, Belam and Lamkut.
Inpui
Inpui is one of the Naga tribes of Manipur. They initially settled in Haochong sub-division of Tamenglong, and Senapati districts. They speak the Inpui also known as the Puiron language. Many of the Inpuis have also settled in Imphal valley. They are the lovers of festivals and they observe several festivals throughout the year. Some of their major festivals include Karing-Ngei, Tataaknu, Nabitnu, Ba-Ngeipui, Muiliangnu, etc. The festivals are celebrated to showcase the culture, tradition and strength of the Inpuis.
Lamkang
The Lamkang tribe is one of the Naga tribes that mostly settled in Manipur and Myanmar. They share close cultural and language similarity with the Anal tribe. They speak the Lamkang dialect which originally belongs to the Tibeto-Burman group of language.
Liangmai
They settle in Tamenglong, Kangpokpi and Senapati districts of Manipur. The Liangmais in Manipur follow Christianity while there are some non- Christians in Nagaland. They speak the Liangmai language, a Tibeto-Burman language. Chaga- Ngee is the biggest festival of the Liangmai community which is celebrated in the month of October. This festival showcases their rich culture and tradition.
Mao
The Mao tribe is one of the major tribes constituting the Nagas. They mainly settled in Senapati district of Manipur. Agriculture is their main occupation while many have started to adopt other business activities. Christianity is their main religion. Chiithuni and Saleni are their major festivals.
Maram
The Maram tribe is one of the tribes that form the Naga tribes of Manipur. They mainly settled in Senapati and Kangpokpi districts of Manipur and speak the Maram language. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people- both men and women. The most important festival for the Marams is the Ponghi festival. This is a pre-harvest festival which is celebrated for 7 days in the month of July. The Kanghi festival is another major festival celebrated in the month of December.
Maring
The Marings are settled mostly in Chandel District of Manipur. Some of them also settle in places like Senapati, Ukhrul, Churachandpur, Tamenglong and Thoubal. There are also few Maring villages in Andro and Waithou. They speak the Maring language. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people. They follow Christianity however there are one or two non- Christian practitioner in every village. The Hnungkaap is their biggest festival which is celebrated after every five years in the month of May.
See also
Maring: Lei Chuinei Lammit/Ayil (Nu-Kungnei Ayil)
Maring: Nu-Ngainei Làmmit/Ayil
The Maring tribe: Culture and lifestyle
The Maring tribe: Customs and beliefs
The Maring tribe: Laws and administration
The Maring tribe: Society and polity
The Maring tribe: Sports and pastimes
Mate
The Mate tribe belongs to the Kuki tribes of Manipur. They speak the “Mate Pao” language which is similar to the language of the Thadou tribe. Earlier, they settled in the hills of Myanmar but now with the growth of their population they have started to settle in various parts of Manipur.
Meitei
The dominant and most important ethnic group in Manipur is the Meitei, who settled in the central plains of the state and make up the bulk of the state's population. Manipur's native language, Meitei, is the most widely spoken in the state.
See also
Meitei
The Meitei Language and Grammar
The Meitei: Traditional economy
The Meiteis Habitat, Appearance
Monsang
The Monsang tribe mostly settled in Chandel district of Manipur. They have their own distinct culture and tradition. They speak the Monsang language which is a Sino-Tibetan language of Northeast India.
Moyon
They mainly settled in Chandel district of Manipur. They are involved in consuming rice beer, which they make locally and in a traditional way with the help of fermented rice. They have unique designs of traditional dress which is related to their history and culture. Women are involved in designing and weaving the attire by themselves. The Moyon tribe preserves their tradition and culture by passing from generation to generation through folk tales and folk dances. Moyons also have their own music and musical instruments which are used in festivals and different dances.
Paite
The Paites are dominant in Churachandpur district of Manipur. Jhum cultivation is the main occupation of the people in the villages. The tradition of folksongs and folktales and culture of the people have been passed through generations. They speak the Paite language and follow Christianity.
Poumai
The Poumais mostly settled in Senapati district of Manipur. They speak their own language called the Poula and are generally Christians. Thounii is one of their major festival. This festival is translated as “New year festival or the festival of dawn”. On festivals and occasions, men wear Roh-lai (a type of crown), Vee-hoxzu (a colourful bird’s feather), Phao-hah, paongi (bangles), etc. Women wear Lakiteisha (a black shawl with red and green stripes), Poupumu (a white-skirt with black and green stripes), bangles and necklaces.
Purum
The Purum tribe currently settled in Saikul sub-division of Kangpokpi district. They speak Purum which is a Kuki-chin language. They mostly communicate in Kom language. Hunting and cultivation are the main occupation of the people. Phou hongba is their traditional festival which is celebrated just before the sowing of seeds.
Zeliangrong
Zeliangrong: Birth and puberty ceremonies
Zeliangrong: Namsu Namdimmei and Khangchiu
Zo
See Zo
